Week 2 Answer Key

Matches the Week 2 Handout. Full question reprinted above each solution.

Topic 1. Units and Interpretation of the Derivative

Core idea to keep repeating: a derivative divides a change in output by a change in input, so its units divide
the same way, and its interpretation is always "one more input unit changes the output by about this much".

Practice 1.1
Let C be the cost in dollars required to produce q litres of cold brew coffee, so C = f(q).
(a) What are the units of f'(2000)?
(b) In non-technical terms, what is the meaning of f'(2000) = 4.5?
Solution
(a) The derivative divides a change in cost (dollars) by a change in quantity (litres): dollars per litre.
Concretely, if going from 2000 to 2001 litres raises the cost by $4.50, the ratio is 4.5 dollars / 1 litre.
(b) The interpretation sentence, filled in: at 2000 litres, producing one more litre costs approximately $4.50.
It is a price for the next litre, not a total, and not the average price of the first 2000 litres.
The explanation she should give
"f' is a rate of change of cost with respect to quantity, so its units are dollars per litre. f'(2000) = 4.5 means
that once 2000 litres have been produced, the next litre costs approximately an extra $4.50."
Answer: (a) dollars per litre. (b) After 2000 litres, the next litre costs about $4.50 more.
If she is stuck, give this example first: W = f(t) is a puppy's weight in kg at age t weeks, and f'(8) = 0.3. Units:
kg per week. Meaning: at 8 weeks old, the puppy is gaining about 0.3 kg per week. Then return to the coffee
problem: same two blanks, different story.
Likely student questions
"Why isn't f'(2000) just in dollars?" Because it is a comparison of two changes, not an amount. Ask her: 4.5
WHAT? Dollars alone cannot be right, because the number would have to change if we measured quantity in
millilitres instead of litres. The input unit has to live in the answer.
"Does litre number 2001 cost exactly $4.50?" Approximately. The rate itself drifts as q grows, so 4.5 is
accurate for the next litre and gradually less accurate further out. Connect this to why tangent line estimates
(Topic 2) degrade over long steps.

Practice 1.2
Let P = g(t) be the population of a town in thousands of people, where t is the number of years since 2020.
(a) What are the units of g'(5)?
(b) In non-technical terms, what is the meaning of g'(5) = -1.4?
Solution
(a) Change in population (thousands of people) divided by change in time (years): thousands of people per
year.
(b) t = 5 is the year 2025. The sign is negative, so the population is falling: the town loses about 1.4
thousand, that is 1400, people per year in 2025.
The explanation she should give
"g'(5) is in thousands of people per year. The negative sign means decrease: in 2025 the town is losing about
1400 people per year."
Answer: (a) thousands of people per year. (b) In 2025 the population is decreasing by about 1400 people
per year.
If she is stuck, give this example first: B = f(t) is a phone's battery percent t hours after 9 am, f'(2) = -12.
Units: percent per hour; at 11 am the battery is draining about 12 percentage points per hour. The negative-
sign handling is identical.
Likely student questions
"What does the negative sign do to the sentence?" It flips increases to decreases. The template does not
change; only the direction word does. Have her write both versions of the sentence, positive and negative,
once.
"Why 1400 and not 1.4?" The OUTPUT unit is thousands of people, so 1.4 of those units is 1400 people.
Converting back to plain units in the final sentence is part of the communication marks.

Practice 1.3
Let F = h(x) be the amount of fuel, in litres, that a car has used after driving x kilometres.
(a) What are the units of h'(120)?
(b) In non-technical terms, what is the meaning of h'(120) = 0.08?
(c) Write the statement "when x = 120, the car is using fuel at a rate of 0.08 litres per kilometre" in Leibniz
notation.
Solution
(a) Change in fuel (litres) over change in distance (kilometres): litres per kilometre.
(b) At the 120 km mark, driving one more kilometre uses about 0.08 L of fuel.
(c) dF/dx with a vertical bar and subscript x = 120, set equal to 0.08. The notation is a fraction of small
changes: a little fuel over a little distance.
The explanation she should give
"Leibniz notation makes the units visible: F on top in litres, x on the bottom in kilometres, so dF/dx is litres
per kilometre. The bar with x = 120 pins the rate to that point."
Answer: (a) litres per kilometre. (b) At 120 km, each further kilometre uses about 0.08 L. (c) dF/dx |
x=120 = 0.08.
If she is stuck, give this example first: Data usage: D = f(t) gigabytes used t days into the month, f'(10) = 0.5,
so dD/dt at t = 10 equals 0.5 GB per day. Ask her to build the Leibniz form herself before returning to fuel.
Likely student questions
"How do I know it is dF/dx and not dx/dF?" The responding quantity goes on top, the controlled quantity on
the bottom. Test with the units: the answer must be litres per km, and only dF/dx delivers that. Checking
units settles every top-or-bottom doubt.

Topic 2. Tangent Line Approximation

Core idea: new value = old value + rate times step, exactly like position = old position + speed times time. a is
where the information is; x is where the question is.
Practice 2.1
The cost y = f(x), in thousands of dollars, of manufacturing x kilograms of ibuprofen satisfies f(1) = 2.6 and
f'(1) = 0.6.
(a) Estimate the cost of producing 1.15 kg of ibuprofen.
(b) If the graph of f is concave up near x = 1, is your estimate an overestimate or an underestimate? Why?
Solution
(a) Fill the slots: a = 1 (both givens are attached to it), x = 1.15 (the question), step = 0.15.
Rate times step = 0.6 times 0.15 = 0.09: the extra 0.15 kg adds about 0.09 thousand dollars. Add to the
known value: 2.6 + 0.09 = 2.69 thousand dollars, about $2690.
(b) Concave up means the curve bends upward, pulling away above its tangent line (see the picture above:
the true value sits above the red estimate). Our estimate came from the tangent line, so it is below the
truth: an underestimate.
The explanation she should give
"I know the value and the rate at x = 1 and want the value at the nearby point 1.15. New value = old value +
rate times step: 2.6 + 0.6(0.15) = 2.69 thousand dollars. Since f is concave up, the tangent line lies below the
curve, so this is an underestimate."
Answer: (a) about 2.69 thousand dollars, roughly $2690. (b) Underestimate: the tangent line sits below a
concave up graph.
If she is stuck, give this example first: A plant is 20 cm tall and growing 2 cm per week. How tall in half a
week? 20 + 2(0.5) = 21 cm. Once she nods, point out the ibuprofen problem is the same sentence with
harder-looking numbers.
Likely student questions
"Which given number is a and which is x?" a is glued to the data: the problem hands you f(a) and f'(a) at the
same input. x only appears in the question. If she swaps them, the step comes out negative when the story
says forward; sanity-checking the step against the story catches it.
"Why multiply by 0.15 and not by 1.15?" The rate is change PER unit step, so it multiplies the size of the step
taken, not the location landed on. The plant example makes this obvious: nobody multiplies 2 cm/week by
week number 1.5.
Practice 2.2
Mr. Bean drives down a straight road in one direction. One hour after leaving home he has travelled 70
km and his current speed is 36 km/h.
(a) About how far from home is he 1.1 hours after leaving?
(b) Summarize your calculation using function notation, where x = f(t) is his distance from home in km
after t hours.
Solution
(a) The words "current speed" are a derivative in disguise: f(1) = 70 and f'(1) = 36. Step = 0.1 h. Rate times
step = 36 times 0.1 = 3.6 km. So he is about 70 + 3.6 = 73.6 km from home.
(b) f(1.1) is approximately f(1) + f'(1)(0.1) = 70 + 36(0.1) = 73.6.
The explanation she should give
"Speed is the derivative of distance. If he holds roughly his current speed for the next 0.1 hours, he covers
about 3.6 more km, so about 73.6 km from home. It is an estimate because his speed may change during
those six minutes."
Answer: (a) about 73.6 km. (b) f(1.1) is approximately f(1) + f'(1)(0.1) = 73.6.
If she is stuck, give this example first: You have $500 and save $50 per month; how much in 0.4 months?
500 + 50(0.4) = 520. Then ask her which word in the Mr. Bean problem plays the role of "$50 per month".
The answer is "current speed".
Likely student questions
"The problem never said derivative, how would I know?" Train the trigger: any instantaneous rate (speed,
growth rate, drain rate, cost per extra unit) paired with a known value at the same moment IS the f(a), f'(a)
pair. Have her circle the value and box the rate in the problem text before computing.

Practice 2.3
The temperature T = f(t) in degrees Celsius, t hours after midnight, satisfies f(6) = 12 and f'(6) = -0.5.
Estimate the temperature at 6:30 am.
Solution
Convert first: 6:30 am is t = 6.5 hours, because the input unit is hours and 30 minutes = 0.5 h. Step = 0.5.
Rate times step = -0.5 times 0.5 = -0.25: the temperature drops about a quarter degree. So f(6.5) is
approximately 12 - 0.25 = 11.75 degrees.
The explanation she should give
"At 6 am it is 12 degrees and falling at half a degree per hour. Half an hour is half of that drop, 0.25 degrees,
so about 11.75 degrees at 6:30."
Answer: about 11.75 degrees Celsius.
If she is stuck, give this example first: A pool is 30 degrees and cooling 2 degrees per hour; temperature
after 15 minutes? 30 - 2(0.25) = 29.5. The unit conversion (15 min = 0.25 h) is the same trap in miniature.
Likely student questions
"Where did 6.5 come from?" Time must match the function's input unit before anything else happens. Make
"convert to the input unit first" a standing rule; it costs marks silently when skipped.
"What do I do with the negative rate?" Nothing special: plug it in and let the sign carry the direction. If the
final answer went UP while the story says cooling, the sign was dropped somewhere.
Topic 3. Relative Rate of Change
Core idea: divide the rate by the current size to turn an absolute change into a percentage, which makes
different-sized quantities comparable.

Practice 3.1
The area of Brazil's rainforest R = f(t), in million acres, is a function of the number of years t since 2000. It
is known that f(9) = 740 and f'(9) = -2.7.
Find and interpret the relative rate of change of f(t) when t = 9.
Solution
Relative rate = f'(9) / f(9) = -2.7 / 740 = -0.00365 approximately. The million-acres units cancel top and
bottom, leaving per year: about -0.37% per year.
Interpretation: in 2009 the rainforest was shrinking by about 0.37 percent of its current size each year. The
absolute loss (2.7 million acres) sounds enormous; the relative rate shows it is a small fraction of a very large
whole. Both facts are true, and they answer different questions.
The explanation she should give
"I divided the rate of change by the current value. The units cancel, so the answer is a percentage per year:
the forest was losing about 0.37% of its area per year in 2009."
Answer: about -0.0037 per year, i.e. shrinking roughly 0.37% per year in 2009.
If she is stuck, give this example first: A savings account holds $2000 and grows by $100 per year. Relative
rate = 100/2000 = 5% per year. Everyone recognizes an interest rate; then reveal that an interest rate IS a
relative rate of change.
Likely student questions
"Why does the answer have no acres in it?" Both f' and f carry million acres, which cancels in the division.
That cancellation is not an accident, it is the point: stripping the size units is exactly what makes percentages
comparable across quantities.

Practice 3.2
A company's annual revenue is Q = f(t) million dollars, t years after launch, with f(3) = 1.2 and f'(3) = 0.18.
Find and interpret the relative rate of change of revenue at t = 3.
Solution
Relative rate = 0.18 / 1.2 = 0.15 = 15% per year. Three years after launch, revenue is growing at 15% of its
current size per year.
Worth comparing with 3.1: the rainforest changes by millions of acres and the company by fractions of a
million dollars, yet on the relative scale the company (15%) is changing about forty times faster than the
forest (0.37%). That comparison is impossible with absolute rates alone.
The explanation she should give
"Revenue grows 0.18 million per year on a base of 1.2 million; dividing gives 0.15, so revenue is growing
about 15% per year at t = 3."
Answer: 0.15 per year: revenue growing about 15% per year at t = 3.
If she is stuck, give this example first: City A gains 1000 people per year and has 10,000 people; city B gains
5000 per year and has 1,000,000. Which is booming? A grows 10% per year, B only 0.5%. The surprise sells
the concept.
Likely student questions
"When do I use the plain derivative and when the relative one?" Plain derivative: how much does it change.
Relative: how fast compared to its size, i.e. any question with "percent" in it or any comparison across
different-sized things.

Practice 3.3
The population P of a species of rabbits grows by about 10% over each quarter year.
True or false: the rate of change dP/dt is approximately constant. Explain, using the difference between a
rate of change and a relative rate of change.
Solution
False. "10% per quarter" fixes the RELATIVE rate. The absolute rate dP/dt is 10% OF the current population,
and the population keeps growing, so dP/dt keeps growing too. With numbers: from 100 rabbits, the next
quarter adds about 10; from 133 rabbits, about 13. Ten rabbits per quarter versus thirteen rabbits per
quarter: not constant.
The explanation she should give
"dP/dt is measured in rabbits per quarter, and 10% of a growing population is a growing number of rabbits,
so dP/dt increases. What stays constant is the relative rate, dP/dt divided by P, at about 10% per quarter."
Answer: False. The relative rate is constant; the absolute rate dP/dt increases.
If she is stuck, give this example first: Money version: an account earning 5% interest. The percentage
never changes, but the dollars added each year grow as the balance grows. Same structure, familiar setting.
Likely student questions
"How can growth be constant and increasing at once?" It cannot be, in the same units. "Constant" is true of
percent per quarter; "increasing" is true of rabbits per quarter. Have her say both sentences aloud with units
attached; the paradox dissolves the moment units are spoken.

Topic 4. Marginal Cost, Revenue, and Profit

Core idea: marginal = derivative = effect of one more unit. Totals questions use R and C; more-or-less
questions compare R' to C'.

Practice 4.1
To produce q telephones, a manufacturer's cost is C(q); to sell q telephones the revenue is R(q). Suppose
C(300) = 5200, R(300) = 8400, C'(300) = 13, and R'(300) = 8.
(a) How much profit does the company make by selling 300 telephones?
(b) The company currently produces and sells 300 telephones. To generate more profit, should they
increase, decrease, or not change their production? Assume they sell everything they produce.
Solution
(a) A totals question, so plain values only: profit = R(300) - C(300) = 8400 - 5200 = 3200 dollars. The
derivatives are not involved.
(b) A change question, so derivatives only: phone number 301 brings in about MR = $8 and costs about MC =
$13. Producing it LOSES about $5. The same is true for phone 302, 303, and so on nearby, so cutting
production raises profit. Decrease.
The explanation she should give
"Total profit is revenue minus cost, $3200. Whether to produce more is a different question about the
margin: the next phone earns $8 but costs $13, losing $5, so producing fewer phones increases profit even
though the company is profitable overall."
Answer: (a) $3200. (b) Decrease production: MR (8) is less than MC (13), so each extra phone loses about
$5.
If she is stuck, give this example first: A lemonade stand: the next cup costs $0.50 in ingredients and sells
for $1.25. Make it? Obviously yes: it adds $0.75. Now flip it: ingredients $1.25, price $0.50. Obviously stop.
The telephone problem is the flipped case with bigger numbers.
Likely student questions
"They make $3200 profit, why cut back?" Because "profitable overall" and "the last unit was profitable" are
different claims. The $3200 was earned by the earlier, cheaper units; the units at the margin now destroy
some of it. Fewer phones means keeping the good units and dropping the money-losing ones.
"Which numbers go where?" Sort the four givens into two boxes before starting: plain values (5200, 8400)
answer amount questions; primed values (13, 8) answer direction questions. Physically drawing the two
boxes once is worth doing.

Practice 4.2
A bakery produces q loaves of bread per day. It is known that C(200) = 850, R(200) = 1200, C'(200) = 2.10,
and R'(200) = 3.50, all in dollars.
(a) What is the bakery's daily profit at 200 loaves?
(b) Should the bakery increase, decrease, or keep its production to raise profit? By roughly how much does
profit change if they bake one more loaf?
Solution
(a) Totals box: profit = 1200 - 850 = 350 dollars per day.
(b) Margin box: loaf 201 earns about $3.50 and costs about $2.10, so it ADDS about 3.50 - 2.10 = $1.40 of
profit. MR exceeds MC: increase production.
The explanation she should give
"Daily profit is $350. The next loaf brings in $3.50 and costs $2.10 to make, adding about $1.40 of profit, so
since marginal revenue exceeds marginal cost, baking more raises profit."
Answer: (a) $350 per day. (b) Increase: each extra loaf adds about $1.40 of profit.
If she is stuck, give this example first: If she hesitates, reuse the lemonade stand with these exact numbers:
cup costs $2.10, sells for $3.50. The scale of the business changes nothing about the logic.
Likely student questions
"Is this the same as the telephones?" Identical template, opposite verdict: there MC beat MR, here MR beats
MC. Say this out loud explicitly. One pattern producing two opposite answers is the proof that she is using a
pattern, not memorizing an answer.

Practice 4.3
A jeweller produces q amethyst pendants. It is known that C(1500) = 9800, R(1500) = 14300, C'(1500) = 6,
and R'(1500) = 6, all in dollars.
(a) What is the profit at 1500 pendants?
(b) Should the jeweller change production? What is special about this situation?
Solution
(a) Profit = 14300 - 9800 = 4500 dollars.
(b) The next pendant earns $6 and costs $6: marginal profit is 0, so producing it changes nothing. This is the
boundary case between 4.1 and 4.2, and it is exactly the condition expected at the profit-maximizing
production level: on one side of the peak "produce more" helps, on the other side "produce less" helps, and
at the peak neither does.
The explanation she should give
"Profit is $4500. Since MR = MC = 6, the next pendant neither adds nor removes profit, so the marginal
information gives no reason to change production. MR = MC is the condition that holds where profit is
maximized."
Answer: (a) $4500. (b) No change indicated; MR = MC means marginal profit is zero, the candidate
condition for maximum profit.
If she is stuck, give this example first: Walk the three problems as one story: MR above MC (bakery) means
climb; MR below MC (telephones) means back up; MR equal to MC (pendants) means the top of the hill.
Sketch a profit hill with the three positions marked.
Likely student questions
"Does MR = MC guarantee a maximum?" Not by itself; a flat spot could also be a minimum. Honest answer
at this stage: it is where changing production stops helping in either direction, and later tools (second
derivative reasoning) distinguish peak from valley.

Topic 5. Limits
Core idea: a limit is where the function is HEADED near a point, ignoring what happens AT the point. Both
directions must agree.

Practice 5.1
Set your calculator to radians. Investigate L = lim as x approaches 0 of sin(5x)/x by computing sin(5x)/x at
x = -0.1, -0.01, -0.001, 0.001, 0.01, and 0.1.
Record the values, then state what you expect L to be, if it exists.
Solution
Values (identical for x and -x because the function is even):
x = 0.1 gives 4.7943. x = 0.01 gives 4.9979. x = 0.001 gives 4.99998.
The trend from both sides is unmistakable: the values crowd toward 5, getting as close as we like as x
shrinks. So L = 5. The formula is undefined at x = 0 itself (0/0), and by the definition of a limit, that does not
matter: the limit watches the approach, not the arrival.
The explanation she should give
"As x gets closer to 0 from either side, sin(5x)/x gets as close to 5 as we like, so by the definition the limit is
5, even though the formula is undefined at 0."
Answer: L = 5.
If she is stuck, give this example first: Simpler numeric warmup: the values of (x squared - 1)/(x - 1) at x =
0.9, 0.99, 1.01, 1.1 are 1.9, 1.99, 2.01, 2.1. Undefined at 1, yet clearly headed to 2. Same phenomenon,
friendlier algebra.
Likely student questions
"My table gives tiny numbers near 0.087." Calculator in degrees. Fix the mode and redo one value together.
Worth a full minute: the course requires radians and this error resurfaces on the exam under time pressure.
"Plugging in x = 0 gives 0/0, so no limit?" 0/0 means "plugging in tells you nothing", not "no limit". The
definition never plugs in the point; it reads the trend of neighbours. This distinction is the single most
important sentence in the topic.

Practice 5.2
Define g by: g(x) = x + 2 for all x not equal to 1, and g(1) = 7.
(a) Find lim as x approaches 1 of g(x), if it exists.
(b) Does the limit equal g(1)? Explain why this is not a contradiction.

Solution
(a) Near 1 (but not at 1), g follows the rule x + 2, whose values approach 3 from both sides. Limit = 3.
(b) g(1) = 7, not 3. No contradiction: the graph is a straight line with one point plucked out and moved up to
height 7. The line's trend heads to the open circle at height 3; the lone dot at height 7 is where the function
happens to BE at 1, which the limit deliberately ignores.
The explanation she should give
"Near x = 1 the function follows x + 2, so its values approach 3 from both sides and the limit is 3. The value
g(1) = 7 is irrelevant, because the definition only looks at x close to, but not equal to, 1."
Answer: (a) 3. (b) No: the limit ignores the function's value at the point itself.
If she is stuck, give this example first: Point at the graph and ask: "if you walked along this line toward x = 1
with your eyes on the road, what height are you heading to?" 3. "And where is the actual point?" 7. The limit
is the heading; the value is the dot.
Likely student questions
"So when CAN I just plug in?" Exactly when the function is continuous there, which is Topic 7. Plugging in is a
privilege that continuity grants; this problem is the bridge between the two topics.

Practice 5.3
Define h by: h(x) = 2x for x < 3, and h(x) = 10 - x for x greater than or equal to 3.
 Find lim as x approaches 3 of h(x), if it exists. Justify your answer using both sides.

Solution
From the left, x < 3, so use 2x: the values head to 2(3) = 6.
From the right, x > 3, so use 10 - x: the values head to 10 - 3 = 7.
Left says 6, right says 7. The graph shows why: the two pieces do not meet, leaving a jump. There is no single
number the values approach, so the limit does not exist.
The explanation she should give
"Approaching 3 from the left the values head to 6, from the right to 7. Since the two sides disagree, there is
no single value L the function approaches, so the limit does not exist."
Answer: The limit does not exist (left gives 6, right gives 7).
If she is stuck, give this example first: Everyday version: the Bike Share fee near 30 minutes (coming up in
7.1). Just below 30 the fee heads to $0, just above to $4. Two walkers approaching the same door from
opposite sides arrive at different rooms: no limit.
Likely student questions
"h(3) = 7, isn't that the answer?" h(3) is the value, not the limit, and here the jump kills the limit no matter
what value sits at 3. Contrast with 5.2: there the limit existed and the value was the odd one out; here the
limit itself fails. Two different ways for limit and value to disagree.
"Which formula do I use at exactly 3?" For the VALUE, the rule that includes 3 (the second one). For the
LIMIT, neither is used AT 3: the left limit uses the left rule, the right limit the right rule.

Topic 6. The Limit Definition of the Derivative

Core idea: average rate over a shrinking interval, then take the limit. Four moves: substitute, subtract, divide
and cancel h, let h go to 0.

Practice 6.1
Let f(x) = x squared. Use the limit definition of the derivative to show that f'(x) = 2x. Show every step of the
four-move recipe.
Solution
Move 1 (substitute): f(x + h) = (x + h) squared = x squared + 2xh + h squared. Every x became (x + h).
Move 2 (subtract): f(x + h) - f(x) = 2xh + h squared. The x squared terms cancelled, as the h-free terms always
must.
Move 3 (divide and cancel): (2xh + h squared)/h = h(2x + h)/h = 2x + h. Legal because h is never 0 during the
limit.
Move 4 (let h go to 0): 2x + h approaches 2x. So f'(x) = 2x.

The graph confirms the formula: tangent slopes are negative on the left branch, zero at the bottom, positive
on the right, and 2x reproduces exactly that: 2(-1.5) = -3, 2(0) = 0, 2(1.5) = 3.
The explanation she should give
"I expanded f(x + h), subtracted f(x) so the h-free terms cancelled, divided by h and cancelled it, then let h go
to 0, leaving 2x. The formula matches the graph: negative slopes left of 0, zero at the bottom, positive to the
right."
Answer: f'(x) = 2x.
If she is stuck, give this example first: Do a = 3 concretely before the general x: f(3 + h) = 9 + 6h + h squared,
subtract 9, divide by h, get 6 + h, limit 6. Then observe 6 = 2 times 3 and ask what the pattern suggests for
general x. Concrete first, abstract second.
Likely student questions
"Why is (x + h) squared not x squared + h squared?" The most common algebra error in the whole course. (x
+ h) squared means (x + h)(x + h); expand it. Useful self-check to hand her: if Move 2 leaves terms without h,
Move 1 went wrong. The recipe polices itself.
"We divided by h, then set h = 0. Cheating?" No: during the limit h is near 0 but never equal to 0, so dividing
is legal. Only after h is cancelled do we read off the trend at h = 0. The division and the limit happen at
different stages, and the stages never overlap.

Practice 6.2
Let f(x) = x squared + 3x. Use the limit definition to find f'(1).
Solution
Move 1: f(1 + h) = (1 + h) squared + 3(1 + h) = 1 + 2h + h squared + 3 + 3h = 4 + 5h + h squared.
Move 2: f(1) = 4, so the difference is 5h + h squared. Constant terms cancelled: good sign.
Move 3: (5h + h squared)/h = 5 + h.
Move 4: limit is 5. So f'(1) = 5, the slope of this curve at x = 1.
The explanation she should give
"Same four moves with a = 1 fixed: every x became (1 + h) in brackets, the constants cancelled in the
subtraction, h cancelled in the division, and the limit gave 5."
Answer: f'(1) = 5.
If she is stuck, give this example first: Bracket trick if substitution wobbles: rewrite the formula with empty
brackets, f( ) = ( ) squared + 3( ), then fill every bracket with 1 + h. The brackets make "replace every x"
physical.
Likely student questions
"Do I substitute into just the x squared or everywhere?" Everywhere, no exceptions. The empty-brackets
trick above is the cure; have her use it twice and the question disappears.

Practice 6.3
Let f(x) = 4x - 7. Use the limit definition to find f'(x). Then say in one sentence why the answer makes sense
from the graph of f.
Solution
f(x + h) - f(x) = [4(x + h) - 7] - [4x - 7] = 4h. Both the 4x and the -7 cancelled.
Divide by h: 4h/h = 4, already h-free, so the limit is just 4. f'(x) = 4.
Graph sense: f is a straight line of slope 4, and a line is its own tangent everywhere, so the slope is 4 at every
point. The -7 vanished because shifting a line down does not tilt it.
The explanation she should give
"After subtracting, only 4h survives, so the difference quotient is exactly 4 even before the limit. That
matches the graph: a line of slope 4 has slope 4 everywhere, regardless of its intercept."
Answer: f'(x) = 4.
If she is stuck, give this example first: Ask first, compute second: "what is the slope of the line y = 4x - 7?"
She will say 4 instantly. Then: "so what must the limit definition produce?" Running the recipe becomes a
verification, which builds trust in the machinery.
Likely student questions
"Why did the -7 vanish?" It appears in both f(x + h) and f(x) and dies in the subtraction. Geometrically:
vertical shifts change position, not steepness. This is the constant rule of Topic 8 being born; point at the
connection.

Think about it (absolute value)

The graph of f(x) = |x| is shown. What does the corner at 0 tell you about f'(0)?
Solution and answer
The difference quotient at 0 approaches -1 from the left and +1 from the right. Both one-sided trends exist,
but they disagree, so the limit defining f'(0) does not exist: f'(0) is undefined. Visually, the corner admits no
single tangent line; you could balance many different lines on that point. This ties Topic 5 (two-sided limits
must agree) directly into Topic 6, and it shows that "the derivative exists" is a real condition, not a formality:
the definition begins "if the limit exists" for exactly this reason.

Topic 7. Continuity
Core idea: continuous at c means three checks pass: the point exists, the trend exists, and the trend arrives
at the point. Name the failing check in every justification.

Practice 7.1
Bike Share Toronto: with an annual membership, trips up to 30 minutes are free. Trips longer than 30
minutes and up to 60 minutes cost $4. Trips longer than 60 and up to 90 minutes cost $8, and the pattern
continues every 30 minutes up to 3 hours.
(a) Sketch the fee as a function f of trip time in minutes on the grid below.
(b) Mia returned her bike after a 30 minute 15 second ride and thought the $4 fee was unfair. Use
continuity (or the lack of it) at t = 30 to explain Mia's feeling.
Solution
(a) The graph is the staircase below. Read the endpoint dots from the wording: "up to 30 minutes" includes
30, so the $0 level ends with a closed dot at t = 30, and the $4 level begins just after 30 with an open circle.
(b) At t = 30 the limit from the left is 0 and the limit from the right is 4. The one-sided limits disagree, so the
limit does not exist: Check 2 fails, and f is not continuous at 30.
Why that explains Mia: continuity is the mathematical form of "small cause, small effect". At a continuous
point, riding 15 seconds longer would change the fee by pennies at most. At this jump, 15 seconds changed
the fee by $4. Her sense of unfairness is the everyday experience of a discontinuity.
The explanation she should give
"Just below 30 minutes the fee is $0 and just above it is $4, so the one-sided limits disagree and the function
is discontinuous at t = 30. Mia's extra 15 seconds crossed the jump: a tiny change in ride time caused a $4
change in fee, which is exactly what a discontinuity means and exactly why it feels unfair."
Answer: (a) Staircase from $0 to $20 in $4 steps, closed dots on the right of each level, open circles on the
left. (b) Discontinuous at t = 30 (one-sided limits 0 and 4); the $4 jump for 15 seconds IS the discontinuity.
If she is stuck, give this example first: Other jump-priced things she knows: postage by weight bracket,
parking by started hour, baggage fees at the airline weight cutoff. Ask her to name the discontinuity point in
one of them.
Likely student questions
"Is f(30) equal to 0 or 4?" 0: the words "up to 30 minutes" include 30 itself. Underline "up to" and "longer
than" in the problem; endpoint conventions come from the words, and reading them precisely is a graded
skill.
"Where do the open and closed circles go?" Closed dot = the value the function actually takes at the
boundary; open circle = the height the neighbouring level approaches but does not reach. One closed and
one open at each jump, never two of the same.

Practice 7.2
Define f by: f(x) = 3x - 1 for x < 2, and f(x) = k for x greater than or equal to 2, where k is a constant.
Find the value of k that makes f continuous at x = 2. Justify using the three checks.
Solution
The picture to hold in mind: a rising line ends just before x = 2, and a flat line takes over from x = 2 onward.
Continuity means they must meet, no gap and no jump.
Check 1: f(2) = k, defined whatever k is.
Check 2: from the left, 3x - 1 arrives at 3(2) - 1 = 5; from the right, the constant piece sits at k. The limit exists
only if they agree: k = 5.
Check 3: with k = 5, the limit is 5 and f(2) = 5. All three checks pass.

The explanation she should give

"For continuity the two pieces must meet at x = 2. The left piece arrives at height 5, so the constant piece
must also sit at height 5, giving k = 5. Then the value, the limit, and their equality all hold."
Answer: k = 5.
If she is stuck, give this example first: Warmup with easier pieces: f(x) = x + 1 for x < 0 and f(x) = k for x at
least 0. The left piece arrives at height 1, so k = 1. Same skeleton, one step of arithmetic.
Likely student questions
"Why does the left limit use 3x - 1 and the right use k?" Each side of 2 is governed by its own rule, so each
one-sided limit reads its own formula. This side-matching move is the mechanical core of every piecewise
continuity problem on the exam.

Practice 7.3
Recall g from Practice 5.2: g(x) = x + 2 for all x not equal to 1, and g(1) = 7.
Is g continuous at x = 1? State which of the three checks pass and which fail.
Solution
Run the checks against the graph from 5.2 (line with the open circle at height 3 and the lone dot at height 7):
Check 1: g(1) = 7 is defined. Passes.
Check 2: the limit as x approaches 1 is 3, computed in 5.2. Passes.
Check 3: limit 3 versus value 7: not equal. Fails. So g is not continuous at 1.
This shape has a name worth giving her: a removable discontinuity. The trend is fine; one misplaced dot
breaks continuity, and moving that single point down to height 3 would repair it. Contrast with the Bike
Share jump, which no single point can repair because the trend itself is broken.
The explanation she should give
"The value exists and the limit exists, but they disagree: the graph heads to height 3 while the actual point
sits at height 7. Check 3 fails, so g is not continuous at 1. It is a removable discontinuity: relocating one point
would fix it."
Answer: Not continuous at 1. Checks 1 and 2 pass; Check 3 fails (limit 3, value 7).
If she is stuck, give this example first: Ask her to invent a function where Check 1 fails instead: for example
h(x) = x + 2 with x = 1 simply excluded from the domain. Comparing "missing dot" with "misplaced dot" locks
in what each check is really testing.
Likely student questions
"Didn't we already do this function?" Deliberately: same object, new question. 5.2 asked where the graph is
headed; this asks whether it arrives. Recognizing that one setup can carry two different questions is
precisely the pattern-over-instance skill being trained.

Topic 8. Derivative Shortcuts

Core idea: constants give 0; mx + b gives m; the power rule brings the exponent down and lowers it by one.
Rewriting roots and reciprocals as powers is the entire difficulty.

Practice 8.1
Using the power rule, differentiate: (a) x to the power 8, (b) x to the power 15, (c) x.
Solution
(a) n = 8: bring it down, lower it by one: 8 times x to the power 7.
(b) n = 15: 15 times x to the power 14.
(c) x is x to the power 1, so n = 1: 1 times x to the power 0 = 1 times 1 = 1. Sanity check: y = x is a line of slope
1, and the linear rule agrees. Two rules, one answer: the rules are consistent.
The explanation she should give
"Each time I bring the exponent to the front and lower the exponent by one. Part (c) shows the power rule
and the linear rule agree: the slope of y = x is 1 either way."
Answer: (a) 8x to the 7. (b) 15x to the 14. (c) 1.
If she is stuck, give this example first: One more of each on the spot: x to the 4 gives 4x cubed; x to the 100
gives 100x to the 99. If those are instant, move on; the plain cases are not where marks are lost.
Likely student questions
"For (c), the exponent becomes 0, so isn't the answer 0?" The exponent landing on 0 makes x to the 0 equal
1; the number IN FRONT is the old exponent, 1. Answer: 1 times 1 = 1. The confusion is between the
coefficient and the exponent; write both explicitly once.

Practice 8.2
Rewrite each function as a power of x, then differentiate: (a) 1 / (x squared), (b) square root of x, (c) 1 /
square root of x.
Solution
(a) Rewrite: 1/(x squared) = x to the power -2. Rule: -2 times x to the power -3. Cleaned up: -2/(x cubed).
Note the derivative is negative, which fits: 1/x squared decreases for x > 0.
(b) Rewrite: square root of x = x to the power 1/2. Rule: (1/2) times x to the power -1/2. Cleaned up: 1/(2
times square root of x).
(c) Rewrite: 1/square root of x = x to the power -1/2. Rule: (-1/2) times x to the power -3/2. The exponent
arithmetic: -1/2 - 1 = -3/2.
The explanation she should give
"None of these look like powers, but each one is: I rewrite first, then apply the same bring-down-and-lower
move as in 8.1. The rewriting is the entire difficulty; the differentiation step is identical every time."
Answer: (a) -2x to the -3 = -2/x cubed. (b) (1/2)x to the -1/2 = 1/(2 root x). (c) (-1/2)x to the -3/2.
If she is stuck, give this example first: If the rewriting itself is shaky, pause differentiation and drill five
rewrites alone: 1/x, 1/x to the 4, cube root of x, x times square root of x, 1/(x cube root of x). Only resume
derivatives once rewriting is automatic; stacking two shaky skills fails both.
Likely student questions
"How do I subtract 1 from -1/2?" -1/2 - 1 = -3/2, since subtracting 1 means moving one whole step down.
Exponent arithmetic with negatives and fractions is where most power rule marks die; a five-question "n
minus 1" drill (n = -2, 1/2, -1/2, 1/3, 3) takes two minutes and pays for itself.
"Can I leave negative exponents in the answer?" Mathematically yes; for communication marks, also give
the cleaned-up fraction form when time allows. Do both on homework until the conversion is free.

Practice 8.3
(a) Differentiate f(x) = 7 and g(x) = -(1/3)x + 2.
(b) The closing values of three stocks over five days are constant: stock f closes at $6 every day, stock g at
$80 every day, stock h at $300 every day. Compare f', g', and h', and explain the result in one sentence.
Solution
(a) f(x) = 7 is constant: f'(x) = 0. g(x) = -(1/3)x + 2 is linear with slope -1/3: g'(x) = -1/3. The +2 contributes
nothing, exactly as the -7 vanished in Practice 6.3.
(b) All three stock histories are constant functions, so f'(t) = g'(t) = h'(t) = 0, all equal. The $300 stock is worth
more, but it is changing exactly as much as the $6 stock: not at all.
The explanation she should give
"The derivative measures change, not size. None of the three stocks moved, so all three derivatives are 0,
and 0 = 0 = 0 regardless of how different the prices are."
Answer: (a) f'(x) = 0, g'(x) = -1/3. (b) f' = g' = h' = 0: derivatives measure change, not level.
If she is stuck, give this example first: Two cars parked overnight, one a $200,000 sports car and one a
$2,000 beater. Whose speed is higher at 3 am? Both zero. Value and rate of change are independent facts
about a thing.
Likely student questions
"Surely the $300 stock's derivative is bigger?" This instinct is exactly what the question exists to break. Ask:
how many dollars did each stock move per day? Zero, zero, zero. If the instinct persists, the parked cars
example above usually ends it.

Session guidance
Suggested order: Topics 1 and 2 together (they share the rate language), Topic 4 while derivative-as-rate is
fresh, then 5, 6, 7 as one arc (limits, then limits define derivatives, then limits define continuity), then 8 as
the payoff, with 3 wherever a change of pace helps.
Protocol for the transfer problem: the first practice item in each topic mirrors the lecture example on
purpose. After she solves it, and before she reads the second item, have her recite the template from
memory and then point at which number in the second problem fills which blank. Saying the mapping out
loud is what converts an instance into a pattern. If the second and third versions go through without
prompting, the topic has transferred; if not, use the backup example for that problem, then generate one
more variant on the spot by changing only the story and keeping her numbers.
Active recall closers, one minute each at the end of the session: (1) what are the units of a derivative, in
general; (2) recite the tangent line approximation and say which letter is the known point; (3) when does
producing more increase profit; (4) what three checks define continuity; (5) what are the four moves of the
limit definition.