PRACTICAL NO.

1
Objective: To identify different type of predators present in crop ecosystem
Insect Predators
An insect predator is large in size, active in habits and has structural adaptations for catching
the prey with well-developed sense organs and capacity for swift movements. They feed upon
a large number of small insects every day. The important groups are as follows:
1. Order: Odonata
Suborder: Anisoptera eg. Dragon fly
Suborder: Zygoptera eg. Damsel fly
• Relatively larger sized insects
• Immature stages (Naiads) are aquatic feeding on aquatic insects
• In naiads, labium is modified into a prehensile organ called mask for catching the
prey
• Adults feed on midges, mosquitoes, flies and small moths
• Adults are capable of catching prey during flight with the help of basket shaped
legs
2. Order: Dictyoptera
Family: Mantidae
• Praying mantids are large elongate insects
• Nymphs and adults are cryptically coloured with long prehensile raptorial forelegs
• Highly predaceous, feeding on variety of insects like flies, grasshopper and many
caterpillars eg. Mantis religiosa
3. Order: Hemiptera
Family: Reduviidae
• Assassin bugs or cone nose bugs or kissing bugs
• Usually blackish or brownish in colour
• The beak or proboscis is short and three segmented
• Most are predaceous and some are blood sucking
• Both nymphs and adults are predaceous
• Eg. Harpactor costalis on the red cotton bug Dysdercus cingulatus
Family: Pentatomidae
• Stink bugs
• Bugs are shield shaped with 5 segemented antennae
• Some of the species are predaceous on lepidopterous larvae
• Both nymphs and adults are predaceous
• Eg. Eucanthecona furcellata on the larvae of red hairy catepillar,
Amsacta albistriga and gram caterpillar, Helicoverpa armigera
Family: Belostomatidae
 • Giant water bug
• Elongate oval and somewhat flattened with raptorial forelegs
• Feed on variety of aquatic insects
Family: Miridae
• Elongated soft bodied insects
• A few species are predaceous
• Eg. Green mirid bug, Cyrotorhinus lividipennis feeds mainly on the eggs and early-
stage nymphs of green leaf hopper (GLH), brown plant hopper (BPH) and white
backed plant hopper (WBPH) in rice
Family: Veliidae
• Ripple bugs
• Aquatic insects living on the surface of water
• Brown or black in colour
• Eg. Microvelia atrolineata feeding on the first instar caterpillar of lepidopteran
pests and GLH, BPH and WBPH in rice ecosystem
4. Order: Neuroptera
Family: Myrmeleontidae
• Ant lions
• Larvae construct pit falls and remain buried in the soil
• Feed on the ants and other insects that fall into the pits
• Feed by inserting the mandibulo - suctorial mouth parts into the prey and sucking
the internal contents
Family: Chrysopidae
• Aphid wolfs or green lace wings
• Adults are green in colour with golden or copper-coloured eyes
• Feed on more than 18 families of insects
• The larvae are predaceous mainly on aphids and also on eggs of lepidopteran
insects, psyllids, coccids, thrips and mites
• Larvae have sharp mandibles
• The eggs of aphid lions are stalked (pedicellate)
5. Order: Diptera
Family: Asilidae (Robber flies)
• Adults are mostly elongate with tapering abdomen
• Body is covered with dense hairs
• Legs are long, strong and well developed
• Adults are predaceous and attack a variety of insects like wasps, bees, grasshoppers,
flies etc.
• Mouth parts are piercing type. They feed by sucking the body fluid of the prey
Family: Syrphidae
 • Hover fly adults are brightly coloured and resemble various bees and wasps
• Good pollinators
• Maggots are green in colour and feed on aphids by sucking their body fluids
6. Order: Coleoptera
Family: Coccinellidae
• Lady bird beetles
• Beetles are small, oval, convex and often brightly coloured
• Grubs are elongate, somewhat flattened and covered with minute barnacles or
spines
• Adults and grubs feed on aphids, coccids, mealy bugs, whiteflies and other soft
bodied insects
• Except one or two species in the family, all are predaceous
• Eg. Rodolia cardinalis on cottony cushion scale, Icerya purchasi
Family: Carabidae
• Ground beetles
• Dark in colour and shiny and somewhat flattened
• Most of them feed on caterpillars
• Eg. Anthia sexguttata, Ophionea indica
Family: Cicindelidae
• Tiger beetles
• Beetles are very active and brightly coloured
• They run and fly rapidly
• Both adults and grubs are predaceous
• Adults capture the prey with sickle shaped mandibles
• Eg. Cicindela spp.
Family: Staphylinidae
• Rove beetles
• Eg.: Paederus fuscipes feeds on rice leaf folder
7. Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Vespidae
• Wasps collect various insects and feed their larvae with them
• Mud wasps construct nests made of mud and provide caterpillars for the young
ones in the nest
Family: Sphecidae
• Digger wasps construct nests made of mud and feed its young ones with insect
caterpillars
Family: Formicidae
• About half the members of the family are predaceous upon insecta

Dragonfly Lady bird beetle Praying mantis

Syrphid fly Green lace wing Tiger beetle

 PRACTICAL NO. 2

Objective: To identify different types of parasitoids, present in the crop ecosystem.

Introduction
Insect parasitoids are organisms that require only a single host to complete their development,
ultimately killing the host. These parasitoids are usually of similar size or smaller than their
host. The feeding habits of adults differ from those of larvae. A majority of parasitoids belong
to the order Hymenoptera (about 90%), while the remaining 10% belong to Diptera.
1. Order: Hymenoptera
The ovipositor arises from the abdomen and projects ventrally, helping the female to lay eggs
inside or on the host. This order includes three major superfamilies:
a) Superfamily: Ichneumonoidea
• Antennae are long and thread-like (filiform)
• Wings are well veined
Family: Ichneumonidae
• Example: Eriborus trochanteratus (larval parasitoid of coconut black-headed
caterpillar, Opisina arenosella)
• Trochanter is two-segmented
• Two recurrent veins (rarely one) present in wings
• Abdomen is about three times longer than the rest of the body
• Large, slender insects, usually black, yellow, or reddish-yellow
• Larvae may be endoparasitic or ectoparasitic on insects and spiders
Family: Braconidae
• Examples: Bracon brevicornis (larval parasitoid of O. arenosella), Chelonus
blackburni (egg-larval parasitoid of cotton spotted bollworms, Earias spp.)
• Adults are smaller and more stout than ichneumonids
• Abdomen length is equal to head and thorax combined
• One or no recurrent vein
• Less brightly coloured than ichneumonids
• Mostly endoparasites of lepidopteran larvae
b) Superfamily: Chalcidoidea
• Generally very small and often gregarious
• Antennae are elbowed (geniculate)
• Abdomen short or globular
• Wings lack veins
Family: Chalcididae
• Example: Brachymeria nephantidis (larval parasitoid of O. arenosella)
 • Abdomen is humped
• Hind femur enlarged and toothed
• Short, straight ovipositor
• Parasites of Lepidoptera, Diptera, and Coleoptera
Family: Trichogrammatidae
• Example: Trichogramma chilonis (egg parasitoid of many lepidopteran pests)
• Minute insects (0.3–1.0 mm)
• Tarsi three-segmented
• Forewings broad with rows of fine hairs
• Hind wings reduced with hairs
• Mostly egg parasitoids
Family: Eulophidae
• Examples: Trichospilus pupivora, Tetrastichus israeli (pupal parasitoids of O.
arenosella)
• Tarsi four-segmented
• Often metallic in colour
• Males may have comb-like (pectinate) antennae
• Parasitic on aphids, scales, and some lepidopteran pupae
c) Superfamily: Bethyloidea
Family: Bethylidae
• Example: Parasierola (= Goniozus) nephantidis (larval parasitoid of O.
arenosella)
• Small to medium-sized, dark-coloured wasps
• Females often wingless and ant-like
• Some species show both winged and wingless forms
• Parasites of Lepidoptera and Coleoptera
2. Order: Diptera
Family: Tachinidae
• Example: Sturmiopsis inferens (larval parasitoid of sugarcane shoot borer, Chilo
infuscatellus)
• Large, bristly flies
• Eggs may be:
o Macrotype: laid directly on the host body
o Microtype: laid on plant surfaces and ingested by the host
• Example: Spoggosia bezziana on O. arenosella
3. Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Epiricanidae
• Example: Epiricania melanoleuca
 • Parasitic on nymphs and adults of sugarcane leafhopper, Pyrilla perpusilla

Trichogramma chilonis Epiricania melanoleuca Bracon brevicornis

Goniozus nephantidis Tachinid parasitoid Aphelinus mali

 PRACTICAL NO. 3
Objective: To identify different entomopathogens present in the crop ecosystem.
Entomopathogens are disease-causing organisms that infect and kill insects. They play a
significant role in the biological control of crop pests and are an important component of
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategies. Major groups of entomopathogens include
bacteria, viruses, fungi, and nematodes.
1. Entomopathogenic Bacteria
a) Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)
• One of the most widely used microbial insecticides
• Produces parasporal crystalline bodies during sporulation
• These crystals contain toxic proteins (endotoxins)
• After ingestion, toxins are activated in the insect gut and destroy midgut epithelial
cells, leading to death
Important strains:
• Bt kurstaki – effective against Lepidoptera
• Bt kurstaki HD-1 – targets Diptera and Lepidoptera
• Bt tenebrionis – effective against Coleoptera
• Bt israelensis – targets Diptera (mosquito larvae)
b) Bacillus popilliae
• Causes milky disease in scarab larvae
• Infected larvae appear milky white due to bacterial spores in hemolymph
• Also associated with B. lentimorbus
c) Bacillus sphaericus
• Aerobic, rod-shaped bacterium producing spherical spores
• Highly persistent in the environment
• Effective against mosquito larvae such as Culex, Psorophora, and Mansonia
2. Baculoviruses
a) Nuclear Polyhedrosis Virus (NPV)
• Belongs to the family Baculoviridae
• Contains proteinaceous polyhedral inclusion bodies with embedded virus particles
Symptoms:
• Larvae become dull and stop feeding
• Body turns pinkish-white, especially on the ventral side
• In advanced stages, larvae become soft and fragile
• Skin ruptures, releasing viral particles
• Infected larvae hang upside down from plants (known as tree-top disease or
Wipfelkrankheit)
Examples of Baculoviruses
Nucleopolyhedroviruses (NPV):
• AcNPV – Autographa californica
• LdNPV – Lymantria dispar
• SlNPV – Spodoptera litura
• HaNPV – Helicoverpa armigera
• TnSNPV – Trichoplusia ni
• BmSNPV – Bombyx mori
• CnSNPV – Culex nigripalpus
• NsSNPV – Neodiprion sertifer
Granuloviruses (GV):
• TnGV – Trichoplusia ni
• SiGV – Sturmiopsis inferens
3. Entomopathogenic Fungi
Fungi were among the first organisms discovered to infect insects due to their visible growth
on the host body. Diseases caused by fungi are known as mycoses. These fungi belong to
groups such as Phycomycetes, Oomycetes, Zygomycetes, and Deuteromycetes (Imperfect
fungi).
Important Fungal Pathogens
i) White Halo Fungus – Verticillium lecanii
• Infects coffee green scale (Coccus viridis)
Symptoms:
• Insect body becomes hard and mummified
• Covered with white, thread-like fungal growth (hyphae)
• Infected insects stick to leaf veins with spores on the surface
ii) Green Muscardine Fungus – Metarhizium anisopliae
• Infects coconut rhinoceros beetle and grubs
iii) White Muscardine Fungus – Beauveria bassiana
• Infects silkworm and castor semilooper
Common Symptoms (Muscardine fungi):
• Body becomes mummified and shrinks from original shape
• Turns hard and dry
• Covered with powdery spores (green or white depending on species)
Verticilium lecani Green muscardine fungus White muscardine fungus
 PRACTICAL NO. 4
Objective: To collect and identify weed-killing insects present in the field.
Weed killers are insects that help in the natural control of weeds by feeding on their leaves,
stems, flowers, or other plant parts. These insects act as biological control agents and play an
important role in reducing weed populations in agricultural ecosystems.
Common Weed-Killing Insects
1. Dactylopius tomentosus (Cochineal insect)
• Used for the control of prickly pear (Opuntia dillenii)
• Introduced into India in 1925
• Effectively controlled the weed within 5–10 years
2. Papilio aristolochiae (Aristolochia butterfly)
• Family: Papilionidae (Order: Lepidoptera)
• Larvae feed on Aristolochia species (weeds)
• Helps in reducing the growth of the host plant
3. Danaus chrysippus (Plain tiger / Calotropis butterfly)
• Family: Nymphalidae (Order: Lepidoptera)
• Larvae feed on Calotropis plants
• Contributes to natural weed suppression
4. Poecilocerus pictus (AK grasshopper)
• Family: Acrididae (Order: Orthoptera)
• Feeds on Calotropis
• Reduces weed population through continuous feeding
5. Neochetina eichhorniae and Neochetina bruchi (Water hyacinth weevils)
• Used for biological control of water hyacinth
• Larvae tunnel into petioles and feed internally
• Adults feed on leaves
• About 10 pairs of adults along with their progeny can control plant growth in
approximately 0.58 m² area
6. Zygogramma bicolorata (Parthenium beetle)
• Family: Chrysomelidae (Order: Coleoptera)
• Both adults and grubs feed on leaves and flowers of Parthenium
• Two beetles can destroy one plant within 45 days
1.

Dactylopius tomentosus Zygogramma bicolorata Neochetina eichhorniae

Danaus chrysippus Poecilocerus pictus Papilio aristolochiae

 PRACTICAL NO. 5
Objective: To study the technique for mass multiplication of Trichogramma species.
Trichogramma spp. are minute egg parasitoids widely used in biological control programmes
against lepidopteran pests. They parasitize the eggs of host insects, preventing pest emergence.
Mass production of Trichogramma is essential for large-scale field release in Integrated Pest
Management (IPM).
Materials Required
• Corcyra cephalonica eggs
• Sieves (15, 30, and 45 mesh)
• Cardboard sheets (10 × 10 cm)
• Gum or adhesive
• Fine brush
• UV lamp
• Polythene bags
• Trichogramma nucleus cards
• Cotton swab
• 50% honey solution with Vitamin E
• Refrigerator (10°C)
Methodology
1. Cleaning of Host Eggs
• Fresh eggs of Corcyra cephalonica are cleaned by passing through 15, 30, and 45
mesh sieves to remove scales and impurities.
2. Preparation of Trichocards
• Cut cardboard sheets into 10 × 10 cm size.
• Each card can hold approximately 1 cc of eggs.
• Apply a thin layer of gum evenly on the card.
• Sprinkle cleaned eggs uniformly over the surface.
• Remove excess eggs using a fine brush.
• Allow the cards to dry in shade for about 30 minutes.
3. UV Treatment
• Expose the prepared egg cards to UV light for 30 minutes.
• This step prevents the hatching of host eggs while keeping them suitable for
parasitization.
4. Parasitization Process
• Place UV-treated Trichocards in a polythene bag.
• Introduce Trichogramma nucleus cards in the ratio of 6:1
(6 host egg cards : 1 nucleus card)
 • Provide a cotton swab soaked in 50% honey solution with Vitamin E as food for
adult parasitoids.
• Keep the setup undisturbed for 2 days.
5. Observation of Parasitization
• On the 3rd day, parasitized eggs turn black, indicating successful parasitization.
• Remove the Trichocards after 2 days of exposure.
6. Storage
• Parasitized egg cards can be:
o Released immediately in the field, or
o Stored at 10°C in a refrigerator for up to 21 days
Field Release
• Adult parasitoids emerge approximately 7 days after parasitization under room
temperature.
• If stored under refrigeration, bring the cards to room temperature for 24 hours before
release.
• Cut the cards into smaller pieces along marked lines.
• Staple or tie the pieces onto the leaf sheath of plants in the field.
 PRACTICAL NO. 6
Objective: To study the mass multiplication technique of Zygogramma bicolorata.
Zygogramma bicolorata is an important phytophagous beetle used as a biological control agent
against the invasive weed Parthenium hysterophorus. Both larvae and adults feed on leaves,
flowers, and tender parts of the plant, leading to effective suppression of weed growth.
Materials Required
• Adult beetles (Zygogramma bicolorata)
• Fresh Parthenium leaves and plants
• Transparent plastic containers (14 × 12 cm)
• Rearing cages (45 × 60 × 90 cm)
• Zinc trays
• Soil
• Water supply
Methodology
1. Collection and Initial Setup
• Place 10 pairs (male and female) of adult beetles in a transparent plastic container
(14 × 12 cm).
• Provide fresh bouquets of Parthenium leaves as food and for egg laying.
2. Egg Collection
• Observe for egg laying on the leaves.
• Replace old leaves with fresh bouquets after egg deposition.
• Continue this process regularly for up to one month to obtain sufficient eggs.
3. Preparation of Rearing Cages
• Prepare cages of size 45 × 60 × 90 cm with zinc trays at the bottom.
• Fill trays with soil.
• Uproot small Parthenium plants and transplant them into the cages.
• Water the plants daily to maintain healthy growth.
4. Transfer of Eggs
• Once plants are established, transfer leaves containing eggs of Z. bicolorata onto
the plants.
• Approximately 100–150 eggs can be introduced per cage.
5. Larval Development
• After hatching, larvae feed on the leaves of Parthenium.
• Fully grown larvae enter the soil and pupate.
• During feeding, larvae can completely defoliate the plants.
6. Adult Emergence
 • Adults emerge from the soil after pupation.
• A ratio of 10–15 grubs per plant is generally maintained.
• Around 15–20 plants per cage are sufficient.
• Each cage can produce approximately 100–125 adult beetles.
Field Multiplication (Optional Method)
• Z. bicolorata can also be multiplied under field conditions.
• Cover Parthenium plants with walk-in field cages.
• Release beetles at a ratio of 1 pair per 2 plants.

Eggs of Z. bicolorata Grub of Z. bicolorata Adult of Z. bicolorata