Sampling Methods
It is incumbent on the researcher to clearly define the target population. There are no strict rules to
follow, and the researcher must rely on logic and judgment. The population is defined in keeping with
the objectives of the study.
Sometimes, the entire population will be sufficiently small, and the researcher can include the entire
population in the study. This type of research is called a census study because data is gathered on
every member of the population.
When the population is too large for the researcher to attempt to survey all of its members a small,
but carefully chosen sample can be used to represent the population. The sample reflects the
characteristics of the population from which it is drawn.
Sampling methods are classified as either probability or non-probability. In probability samples, each
member of the population has a known non-zero probability of being selected. Probability methods
include random sampling, systematic sampling, and stratified sampling. In non-probability sampling,
members are selected from the population in some non-random manner. These include convenience
sampling, judgment sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling. The advantage of probability
sampling is that sampling error can be calculated. Sampling error is the degree to which a sample
might differ from the population. When inferring to the population, results are reported plus or minus
the sampling error. In non-probability sampling, the degree to which the sample differs from the
population remains unknown.
Random sampling is the purest form of probability sampling. Each member of the population has an
equal and known chance of being selected. When there are very large populations, it is often difficult
or impossible to identify every member of the population, so the pool of available subjects becomes
biased.
Systematic sampling is often used instead of random sampling. It is also called a Nth name
selection technique. After the required sample size has been calculated, every Nth record is selected
from a list of population members. As long as the list does not contain any hidden order, this
sampling method is as good as the random sampling method. Its only advantage over the random
sampling technique is simplicity. Systematic sampling is frequently used to select a specified number
of records from a computer file.
Stratified sampling is commonly used probability method that is superior to random sampling
because it reduces sampling error. A stratum is a subset of the population that share at least one
common characteristic. Examples of stratums might be males and females, or managers and non-
managers. The researcher first identifies the relevant stratums and their actual representation in the
population. Random sampling is then used to select a sufficient number of subjects from each
stratum. "Sufficient" refers to a sample size large enough for us to be reasonably confident that the
stratum represents the population. Stratified sampling is often used when one or more of the stratums
in the population have a low incidence relative to the other stratums.
Convenience sampling is used in exploratory research where the researcher is interested in getting
an inexpensive approximation of the truth. As the name implies, the sample is selected because they
are convenient. This non-probability method is often used during preliminary research efforts to get a
gross estimate of the results, without incurring the cost or time required to select a random sample.
Judgment sampling is a common non-probability method. The researcher selects the sample based
on judgment. This is usually and extension of convenience sampling. For example, a researcher may
decide to draw the entire sample from one "representative" city, even though the population includes
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all cities. When using this method, the researcher must be confident that the chosen sample is truly
representative of the entire population.
Quota sampling is the non-probability equivalent of stratified sampling. Like stratified sampling, the
researcher first identifies the stratums and their proportions as they are represented in the population.
Then convenience or judgment sampling is used to select the required number of subjects from each
stratum. This differs from stratified sampling, where the stratums are filled by random sampling.
Snowball sampling is a special non-probability method used when the desired sample characteristic
is rare. It may be extremely difficult or cost prohibitive to locate respondents in these situations.
Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial subjects to generate additional subjects. While this
technique can dramatically lower search costs, it comes at the expense of introducing bias because
the technique itself reduces the likelihood that the sample will represent a good cross section from
the population.
The following table provides an overview of the basic methods to collect data.
Method Overall Purpose Advantages Challenges
-can complete anonymously
-might not get careful
-inexpensive to administer
feedback
-easy to compare and
need to quickly and/or -wording can bias client's
questionnaires, analyze
easily get lots of responses
surveys, -can administer to many
information from people in -are impersonal
checklists people
a non threatening way -in surveys, may need
-can get lots of data
sampling expert
-many sample
- doesn't get full story
questionnaires already exist
-can take much time
want to fully understand -get full range and depth of
-can be hard to analyze
someone's impressions or information
and compare
interviews experiences, or learn more -develops relationship with
-can be costly
about their answers to client
-interviewer can bias
questionnaires -can be flexible with client
client's responses
-get comprehensive and -often takes much time
want impression of how
historical information -info may be incomplete
program operates without
-doesn't interrupt program or -need to be quite clear
documentation interrupting the program;
client's routine in program about what looking for
review is from review of
-information already exists -not flexible means to get
applications, finances,
-few biases about data; data restricted to what
memos, minutes, etc.
information already exists
-can be difficult to interpret
to gather accurate -view operations of a seen behaviors
information about how a program as they are actually -can be complex to
observation program actually operates, occurring categorize observations
particularly about -can adapt to events as they -can influence behaviors of
processes occur program participants
-can be expensive
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explore a topic in depth -quickly and reliably get
-can be hard to analyze
through group discussion, common impressions
responses
e.g., about reactions to an -can be efficient way to get
-need good facilitator for
focus groups experience or suggestion, much range and depth of
safety and closure
understanding common information in short time
-difficult to schedule 6-8
complaints, etc.; useful in - can convey key information
people together
evaluation and marketing about programs
to fully understand or -usually quite time
-fully depicts client's
depict client's experiences consuming to collect,
experience in program input,
in a program, and conduct organize and describe
case studies process and results
comprehensive -represents depth of
-powerful means to portray
examination through cross information, rather than
program to outsiders
comparison of cases breadth
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