The E factor 25 years on: the rise of green chemistry and
sustainability
• Greenness
• mass-based metrics such as atom economy
• E factors
• process mass intensity
• life cycle assessment
System boundaries and intrinsic E factors
• simple E factors (sEF)
• Doesn’t take solvents and water
• Scouting activities
• complete E factors (cEF)
• Includes Solvent and water
• No recycling
• Total waste stream analysis
• cradle-to-grave
Environmental impact of waste: life cycle assessment • cradle-to-gate
(Resource and Environmental Profile Analysis) • gate-to-gate
Flow:
Raw materials → Production → Use → Disposal (landfill/recycling)
E-waste Example:
Mining metals (Cu, Au) → Manufacturing mobile phone → Usage → Disposal as e-waste →
landfill/recycling impacts
Flow:
Raw materials → Production → Factory gate (end)
E-waste Example:
Mining metals → Manufacturing a laptop → Analysis stops before it reaches the consumer
Flow:
Input → Process → Output (within one facility)
E-waste Example:
Only studying recycling process of circuit boards (metal recovery step)
A mobile phone LCA:
•Cradle-to-grave: includes mining → usage → e-waste disposal
•Cradle-to-gate: only mining + manufacturing
•Gate-to-gate: only PCB recycling process
ISO 14040 : 2006 Standard
• goal and scope definition,
• inventory analysis,
• impact assessment,
• interpretation.
1. Goal and Scope Definition
•Defines:
• Purpose of the study
• System boundaries (cradle-to-grave / gate-to-gate)
• Functional unit (e.g., 1 mobile phone)
E-waste Example:
Study the environmental impact of one laptop from production to disposal in India.
2. Inventory Analysis (LCI)
•Collection of input/output data:
• Inputs: raw materials, energy
• Outputs: emissions, waste
E-waste Example:
•Input: copper, gold, electricity
•Output: CO₂ emissions, toxic waste, heavy metals (Pb, Hg)
3. Impact Assessment (LCIA)
•Converts inventory data into environmental impacts:
• Global warming
• Acidification
• Human toxicity
• Ozone depletion
E-waste Example:
•CO₂ → Global warming
•Lead (Pb) → Human toxicity
•CFCs → Ozone depletion
4. Interpretation
•Analyze results and draw conclusions
•Identify improvements or decision-making strategies
E-waste Example:
•Suggest recycling instead of landfill
•Improve design for easier material recovery
1. acidification
2. ozone depletion
3. smog formation
4. global warming
5. human toxicity by ingestion and inhalation
6. Persistence
7. Bioaccumulation
8. abiotic resource depletion
1. Acidification
•Informal recycling (burning wires, acid leaching of metals) releases SO₂, NOₓ, and
acidic fumes.
•Leads to acid rain and soil degradation near recycling sites.
2. Ozone Depletion
•Old electronic devices (refrigerators, air-conditioners) contain CFCs/HCFCs.
•Improper disposal releases these gases, contributing to ozone layer depletion.
3. Smog Formation
•Open burning of cables and plastic components releases VOCs and NOₓ.
•These react under sunlight to form photochemical smog, especially in urban recycling
hubs.
4. Global Warming
•E-waste contributes through:
• Release of greenhouse gases during burning
• Loss of recyclable materials → more energy needed for new production
•Refrigerants (HFCs) from discarded cooling devices also increase global warming potential.
5. Human Toxicity (Ingestion & Inhalation)
•E-waste contains lead (Pb), mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd), arsenic:
• Inhalation: toxic fumes from burning plastics and circuit boards
• Ingestion: contaminated water/food near dumping sites
•Causes neurological damage, kidney failure, and cancer risks.
6. Persistence
•Many e-waste materials (plastics, heavy metals) are non-biodegradable.
•They remain in soil and water for decades, continuously releasing toxins.
7. Bioaccumulation
•Toxic metals from e-waste enter soil → plants → animals → humans.
•Example: Mercury and lead accumulate in fish and crops, increasing toxicity along the food
chain.
8. Abiotic Resource Depletion
•E-waste contains valuable materials like gold, copper, rare earth elements.
•Improper disposal leads to loss of recoverable resources, increasing mining demand and
resource depletion.
Impact Category E-waste Effect Example (Real-life)
Acid leaching of gold from circuit
Acid fumes from recycling damage
Acidification boards using strong acids
soil/water
contaminates nearby soil and rivers
Old refrigerators/ACs releasing CFCs
Ozone Depletion Release of CFCs from old devices
when dismantled improperly
Open burning of wires releases toxic
Smog Formation Burning plastics → VOCs → smog smoke forming smog in recycling
areas
CO₂ from burning e-waste + HFC
Global Warming GHG emissions + refrigerants leakage from modern air
conditioners
Lead and mercury exposure from
Human Toxicity Heavy metals harm via air & food circuit boards affecting workers and
nearby residents
Plastics and heavy metals remain in
Persistence Non-degradable toxic materials landfills for decades without
breaking down
Mercury from e-waste entering
Bioaccumulation Toxins build up in food chain
water → fish → humans
Gold, copper, rare earth metals lost
Abiotic Resource Depletion Loss of valuable metals when e-waste is not properly
recycled
Global
Warming
Gas Full Name Main Source E-waste Example
Potential
(GWP)*
Burning plastic
Burning fossil
CO₂ Carbon dioxide 1 (reference) components of e-
fuels
waste
Decomposition of e-
Landfills,
CH₄ Methane ~25 waste mixed with
organic waste
organic waste
Fertilizers, Emissions during
N₂O Nitrous oxide ~298
combustion informal recycling
Very high
CFCs Chlorofluorocarbons Old refrigerants Old refrigerators, ACs
(thousands)
Transitional
HCFCs Hydrochlorofluorocarbons High Old cooling devices
refrigerants
Modern New ACs,
HFCs Hydrofluorocarbons Very high
refrigerants refrigerators
Sustainability metrics
• Role of catalysis
• aerobic oxidations of alcohols
• catalytic C–C bond formation
• Olefin metathesis
• Neoteric solvents
• ionic liquids
• deep eutectic
solvents
large dielectric constants; they do not participate
low dielectric constants (<5) and are not good in hydrogen bonding
solvents for charged species such as anions
moderately higher dielectric constants than the nonpolar solvents,
don’t participate in reactions; serve only as the medium
high dielectric constants; participate in hydrogen bonding
TiO2, S
– Non Polar Substances
• Refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners and CRT TVs
• Base metals (Al, Cu, Fe, Pb, Sn and Zn)
• Personal computers, mobile phones, video game consoles and digital devices
• Precious metals (Ag, Au and Pd)
• Information and communication technology
• Common metals (Ba, Bi, Co, Ga, Sr and Ta)
Components with ceramic materials
metals, ceramics and plastics
Ceramics
The properties of ceramics, such as their insulating, semi-conducting, superconducting,
piezoelectric and magnetic properties, have turned them into a critical material for
microchips and others components found in cell phones, computers, televisions, and
other consumer electronics
A ceramic material is any inorganic and non-metallic substance. It is usually formed by a
metallic and a non-metallic element, such as SiO2 or Al2O3. Ceramic materials have a wide
range of physical properties that make their use possible in many products
The history of modern electronics began in 1954, when Gordon Teal and his team
announced the invention of silicon transistors. Until 1954, transistors were made of
germanium, an expensive element, and showed little potential for substituting vacuum
valves. Gordon’s discovery, however, enabled the use of silicon in integrated circuits
commonly known as microchips
The invention of silicon microchips let to the creation of microprocessors and
revolutionized the world.
Feature FR-4 FR-2
Base Material Fiberglass + epoxy Paper + phenolic resin
Strength High Low
Moisture Resistance Good Poor
Heat Resistance High Low
Cost Expensive Cheap
Common Use Advanced electronics Basic electronics
Silicon, aluminum, calcium, boron, sodium, potassium, magnesium, iron and titanium
oxides are usually employed in the manufacture of PCB fiberglass.
[ WEEE Collection ]
↓
[ Manual Disassembly ]
(Hand picking of components)
↓
[ Comminution Process ]
(Shredding < 2 mm)
↓ Waste (WEEE / Non-metallic fraction)
[ Magnetic Separation ] ↓
├── Magnetic → Fe, Ni Incineration
└── Non-Magnetic ↓
↓ ┌────────┴────────┐
[ Eddy Current Separation ] ↓ ↓
├── Metals → Al, Cu, Au, etc. Polymers Ceramics
└── Non-Metallic Fraction (energy) (ash/slag)
↓ ↓ ↓
[ Density Separation ] Heat → Electricity Landfill
├── Polymers → Fuel / Reuse
└── Ceramics
↓
[ Final Disposal ]
├── Incineration (if polymers present)
├── Smelting → Slag
└── Landfill
Lithium-ion / Ni-MH Batteries
↓
Smelting
↓
┌────────┴────────┐
↓ ↓
Metal Alloy Slag (Oxides)
(Ni, Co, etc.) (Ca, Al, Si, Fe, Mn, Li)
↓ ↓
Further recovery Hydrometallurgy
of valuable metals ↓
Lithium separation
↓
┌───────────────┴───────────────┐
↓ ↓
By-products Residues
(Ca, Al, Si, Mg oxides) (minor metals)
↓
Construction use
(concrete, aggregate, filler)
Umicore Company
Pretreatment: M→Mn++ne−
(No major reactions → exposure of metals)
First Stage: Second Stage:
Metal → Metal ions Au, Ag, Pd → Complex ions
Cu → Cu²⁺, Ni → Ni²⁺ (acid + oxidant) Au → AuCl₄⁻ / Au(CN)₂⁻ / Au-thiourea complex
Precious Metals (Au, Ag,
Property Base Metals (Cu, Fe, Ni)
Pd)
Reactivity High Very low
Oxidation Easy Difficult
Acid needed Weak/moderate Strong oxidizing
Complexing needed Not essential Essential
Aqua regia, CN⁻,
Example reagent HCl, H₂SO₄
thiosulfate
Types of Microbes
•Bacteria (e.g., Acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans)
•Fungi
•Archaea
Stage Main Goal What Happens Outcome
Crushing, grinding, Increased surface
Pretreatment Expose metals
dismantling area for reactions
Initiate biological Growth of bacteria in Active bioleaching
Microbial Activation
system acidic medium environment
Bioleaching (Base Microbes produce Cu²⁺, Ni²⁺, Zn²⁺ in
Dissolve base metals
Metals) Fe³⁺ and acids (H₂SO₄) solution
Microbes produce
Bioleaching (Precious Au, Ag form soluble
Dissolve noble metals complexing agents
Metals) complexes
(e.g., CN⁻)
Solid–Liquid Separate solution & Metal-rich leach
Filtration/settling
Separation residue liquor obtained
Electrowinning,
Metals recovered in
Metal Recovery Extract pure metals precipitation,
solid form
extraction
Reduce Neutralization, Safe discharge &
Effluent Treatment
environmental impact recycling reuse
Feature Bacteria Fungi Archaea
Prokaryotic (no Eukaryotic (has Prokaryotic (no
Cell Type
nucleus) nucleus) nucleus)
Complex (yeast:
Structure Simple, single-celled single, molds: Simple, single-celled
multicellular)
No peptidoglycan
Cell Wall Peptidoglycan Chitin (unique
composition)
Everywhere (soil, Extreme conditions
Habitat Moist environments
water, body) (hot, acidic, salty)
Acidithiobacillus Thermophilic
Examples Yeast, mold
ferrooxidans archaea
Work in extreme
Oxidize metals (very
Role in Bioleaching Limited role bioleaching
important)
conditions
Metals have high density (≈ 7–9 g/cm³) Lower density (≈ 1–3 g/cm³)
Heat → Burn organics → Melt metals
→ Separate slag → Refine metals →
Recover pure metals
Stage Main Goal What Happens Outcome
Volume reduction + energy
Incineration / Combustion Remove organics Burning of plastics, resins
release
Heating without oxygen → Cleaner separation of metals
Pyrolysis (optional) Decompose polymers safely
oil, gas, char & fibers
Smelting (High Temp Metals melt; oxides form Metal phase + slag phase
Melt and separate phases
Furnace) slag formed
Oxides (SiO₂, Al₂O₃, FeO) → Impurities separated from
Slag Formation Remove impurities
slag metals
Dense molten metals settle
Metal Separation Concentrate valuable metals Metal-rich phase obtained
(Cu, Au, Ag)
Oxidation of impurities (Fe,
Converting / Refining Improve metal purity Blister copper / refined alloy
Zn, Pb)
Pure Cu + precious metals
Electrorefining (Post-step) Recover high-purity metals Electrochemical purification
recovery
Reduced environmental
Gas Treatment Control emissions Capture SO₂, dioxins, dust
impact
• Polimers: 51 %
• Metals: 16 %
• LCD Glass: 22 %
• PCB: 9 %
• Backlight: 0.34 %
• Wire, rubber, laminated
plastics and other: 1.7 %
Item 1: Front of the monitor Item 9: Back of the glass screen
Item 2: Monitor without polymeric frame Item 10: Diffuser sheets
Item 3: Front of the LCD screen Item 11: Perspex
Item 4: Back of the LCD screen Item 12: Reflective sheet
Item 5: Fluorescent lamp over a 20 cm ruler Item 13: Back cover of the monitor and PCB
Item 6: Front Screen Glass with PCB Item 14: Back of the monitor
Items 7 and 8: PCB
Front Cover Recycling (Glass/Plastic Panel)
Methods:
[Link] Dismantling
1. Remove bezels safely
[Link] Crushing
1. Break into small fragments
[Link] Sorting
1. Separate glass vs plastic
Output:
•Reusable glass cullet
•Recycled plastic granules
Polymeric Frame Recycling
Materials:
•ABS / Polycarbonate
Unique Methods:
[Link] Separation (Sink-Float)
1. Separate mixed plastics
[Link]
1. Convert to pellets
[Link] (Advanced)
1. Improve recycled polymer quality
Applications:
•Reuse in electronics casing
LCD Screen Recycling (Critical Part)
Components:
•Glass layers
•Liquid crystals
•CCFL (mercury lamp) / LED
Unique Methods:
[Link] Delamination
1. Separate bonded layers
[Link] Treatment
1. Prevent toxic release
[Link] Recovery System
1. Safe extraction from CCFL
Output:
•Glass reuse
•Hazard removal (Hg)
Environmental & Health Considerations
•Mercury exposure (CCFL)
•Lead in solder
•Brominated flame retardants
Safety:
•PPE
•Closed-loop systems
•Authorized recycling
Sustainability & Circular Economy
•Resource recovery (Cu, Au, plastics)
•Reduced landfill
•Energy savings
Metric Example:
•Recycling efficiency (%)
•E-factor reduction
Solved Problems – E-Waste & Sustainability
1. E-Factor Calculation (Green Chemistry)
Problem:
A recycling process produces 2 kg of copper from PCB waste but generates 8 kg of
waste sludge. Calculate the E-factor and comment on sustainability.
E=8/2=4
Interpretation:
•Moderate waste generation
•Lower E-factor ⇒ better sustainability
•Needs improvement (target <1 in green
processes)
2. Material Recovery Efficiency
From 100 kg of e-waste, a plant recovers:
•20 kg metals
•30 kg plastics
•10 kg glass
Calculate total recovery efficiency.
Total recovered
20 + 30 + 10 = 60 kg
Efficiency
60
Efficiency = × 100 = 60%
100
Recovery efficiency = 60%
3. Heavy Metal Exposure (Health Impact Analysis)
Soil near an e-waste site contains Pb = 150 mg/kg, while the safe limit is 50 mg/kg.
Determine the risk factor.
Risk Factor=150/50=3
Interpretation:
•High contamination
•Severe health risk (neurological damage)
4. Magnetic Separation Efficiency
A magnetic separator processes 200 kg waste containing 50 kg iron. It recovers 45 kg iron.
Calculate separation efficiency.
Efficiency=45/50 ×100=90%
5. Leaching Efficiency (Hydrometallurgy)
A PCB contains 10 g of copper. After leaching, 8 g is recovered.
Find leaching efficiency.
Efficiency=8/10×100=80%
6. An e-waste plant processes 500 kg PCB waste:
•Magnetic separation removes 50 kg Fe (100% efficient)
•Eddy current recovers 120 kg non-ferrous metals (80% efficient)
•Hydrometallurgy extracts 60 kg Cu from remaining material (75% efficient)
•Total waste generated = 200 kg sludge
Tasks:
a) Calculate total metal recovered
b) Overall recovery efficiency
c) E-factor
d) Comment on process sustainability
a) Metal recovered
50 + 120 + 60 = 230 kg
b) Recovery efficiency
230
× 100 = 46%
500
c) E-factor Interpretation:
200
= 0.87 •Low efficiency (needs optimization)
230 •Good E-factor (<1 → sustainable)
•Improve mechanical separation stage
7. Plastic Recycling Limitation Analysis
E-waste plastic stream:
•40% thermoplastic
•30% thermoset
•30% mixed contaminated
Recycling efficiencies:
•Thermoplastic → 90%
•Thermoset → 10%
•Mixed → 20%
Task:
Calculate overall recycling efficiency.
0.4×90=36
0.3 × 10 = 3
0.3 × 20 = 6
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 45%
Implications for Future Prospect
extended producer responsibility (EPR) ; polluter pays principle(PPP); Extended consumer responsibility (ECR); advance recycling fee(ARF);
All the Best for the End Sem
6th May 2026
Slot 1: 9.30 am to 12.30 pm
Thank You ☺
1. Hugo Marcelo Veit and Andréa Moura Bernardes, “ Electronic Waste: Recycling
Essential Reading
Techniques” Springer 2015.
1. Muammer Kaya, “ Electronic Waste and Printed Circuit Board Recycling Technologies”,
Springer 2019.
Supplementary
2. Muhammad Zaffar Hashmi and Ajit Varma, “Electronic Waste Pollution: Environmental
Reading
Occurrence And Treatment Technologies”, Springer 2019.
3. Lifeng Zhang and Gregory K. Krumdick, “Recycling of Electronic Waste II”, Wiley 2011.