SCIENCE 8 – THIRD QUARTER
I. Structure of the Earth
Geosphere
- Solid part of the earth
- the ground we stand on
3 Layers of the Earth
1. Earth’s Crust – solid and thinnest layer
➢ Continental Crust – land
➢ Oceanic Crust – water
2. Mantle – layer beneath the earth
- Thickest layer
➢ Upper Mantle – semi-fluid; allows the tectonic plates to move
➢ Lower Mantle – fully solid
3. Core – beneath the mantle
- Innermost layer
➢ Outer core – molten iron and metal (liquid part)
➢ Inner core – solid and innermost of the earth’s layer
II. Atmosphere
- Layer of gases that surrounds the earth
III. Tectonic Plates
- Plates that are on the crust and slide with each other to form or decrease landforms.
1. Divergent Plate – moves away from each other to form a new crust
2. Convergent Plate – moves towards each other (mountains, hills, etc.)
3. Transform Plate – slides past each other; causes earthquakes
IV. Earthquakes
Term Definition
A sudden, rapid shaking of the Earth's crust caused by the release of energy stored in
Earthquake
rocks.
Fault A break or crack in the Earth's crust where movement occurs.
Focus The point inside the Earth where the earthquake originates and where the rock first
(Hypocenter) breaks and releases energy.
The point on the Earth's surface directly above the focus. This is where the shaking is
Epicenter
usually strongest.
Seismic Waves Energy waves that travel through the Earth's layers and are responsible for the shaking.
Seismology The scientific study of earthquakes.
Seismograph An instrument used to detect and record the ground motion caused by seismic waves.
Caused of Earthquakes – movement of Tectonic Plates.
1. Plate Tectonics
The Earth's lithosphere (crust and upper mantle) is broken into large pieces called tectonic plates. These
plates are constantly moving (very slowly) due to convection currents in the mantle.
2. Plate Boundaries - Most earthquakes occur at the boundaries where these plates interact. There are
three main types of plate boundaries:
• Convergent Boundary: Plates move toward each other (e.g., one plate slides under the other,
called subduction). This causes deep and powerful earthquakes.
• Divergent Boundary: Plates move away from each other. This typically causes shallow and
less powerful earthquakes.
• Transform Boundary: Plates slide past each other horizontally (e.g., the San Andreas Fault).
This causes frequent and often strong earthquakes.
3. Elastic Rebound Theory - This theory explains how the energy is released:
• Stress builds up: Tectonic forces constantly push and pull on the rocks across a fault.
• Deformation: The rocks bend and store elastic energy, like a stretched rubber band.
• Rupture: When the stress exceeds the rock's strength, the rock suddenly breaks and snaps
back into place.
• Energy Release: The stored energy is released as seismic waves, causing the earthquake.
Seismic Waves - Seismic waves are the energy that travels away from the focus. They are categorized
into two main types:
Travel
Type of Wave Description Shaking Motion
Speed
Travel through the
1. Body Waves
Earth's interior.
P-waves Fastest wave. Arrives Pushes and pulls (compressional/longitudinal) like a
Faster
(Primary) first. slinky. Travels through solids, liquids, and gases.
S-waves Slower than P-waves. Shakes the ground sideways and up and down
Slower
(Secondary) Arrives second. (shear/transverse). Travels only through solids.
2. Surface Travel along the Earth's Most destructive, complex rolling and side-to-side
Slowest
Waves surface. motion.
Measuring Earthquakes - Earthquakes are measured using two main scales:
Scale What it Measures Based On
Magnitude (e.g., Richter Scale, Measures the energy released at The amplitude (height) of the seismic
Moment Magnitude Scale) the earthquake's source. waves recorded by a seismograph.
Intensity (e.g., Modified Mercalli Measures the degree of Observed effects on people,
Intensity Scale) shaking at a specific location. buildings, and the environment.
V. Volcanoes
A. How Volcanoes Form
1. Convergent Plate Boundaries (Subduction Zones)
- Most common way volcanoes form.
- An oceanic plate (thinner, denser), sinks (sub-ducts) beneath a continental plate (thicker, less
dense).
- As the oceanic plate sinks, the water trapped in its rock is squeezed out. This water lowers the
melting point of the surrounding mantle rock, causing it to melt and form **magma**.
- The magma is less dense than the solid rock around it, so it rises and collects in a **magma
chamber** until it forces its way to the surface, creating a volcano.
2. Divergent Plate Boundaries
- Two tectonic plates move away from each other, creating a crack or rift.
- This decreases the pressure on the hot mantle rock below, allowing it to melt into magma, which
rises to fill the crack.
- Most divergent volcanism occurs at mid-ocean ridges, forming chains of underwater volcanoes.
3. Hot Spots
- These form in the middle of a tectonic plate, far from plate boundaries, over an unusually hot area
in the mantle called mantle plume.
- The heat from the plume melts the rock, and the resulting magma rises and erupts through the
crust.
- Since the plate moves over the stationary hot spot, a chain of volcanoes forms, with the youngest
one directly over the hot spot
Pacific Ring of Fire – a major area in the basin of the Pacific Ocean where a large number of earthquakes
and volcanic eruptions occur. It's essentially the rim of the Pacific plate and is home to about 75% of the
world's volcanoes.
B. Main Types of Volcanoes
Morphology – classifying volcanoes based on their shape.
Volcano Type Shape & Characteristics Eruptive Style Example
Explosive and violent,
Tall, steep-sided, and symmetrical Mount Fuji,
1. Composite because the lava is thick
cones. Built from alternating layers Mount St.
(Stratovolcano) (viscous) and traps gas,
of lava, ash, and cinders. Helens
allowing pressure to build up.
Broad, gently sloping cone, like a Effusive (non-explosive), as
warrior's shield lying on the ground. the lava is thin (low Mauna Loa
2. Shield
Built almost entirely of fluid lava viscosity) and flows easily (Hawaii)
flows. over great distances.
Smallest and simplest type, with
steep, straight sides and a bowl-
Short, explosive bursts that
shaped crater at the summit. Built Parícutin
3. Cinder Cone throw cinders into the air.
from fragments of congealed lava (Mexico)
Typically erupt only once.
(cinders/scoria) ejected from a single
vent.
Volcano Activity Levels
Scientists also classify volcanoes based on their level of activity:
• Active: A volcano that has erupted in historical times and is likely to erupt again.
• Dormant: A volcano that is quiet but could erupt again in the future (it has not erupted for a long time,
but still has a magma supply).
• Extinct: A volcano that is not expected to erupt again because its magma source has been removed.