A PN junction diode is a two-terminal semiconductor device formed by joining better transformer utilization than a half-wave rectifier.
It can be constructed
one P-type and one N-type semiconductor. It allows electric current to flow using either a center-tapped transformer with two diodes or a bridge
easily in one direction (forward bias) while offering very high resistance in the configuration with four diodes.
opposite direction (reverse bias). Therefore, it is called a unidirectional
device and is widely used for rectification, switching, and signal detection. A bridge rectifier is a full-wave rectifier consisting of four diodes connected in
a bridge configuration. It rectifies both halves of the AC input without requiring
Working Principle a center-tapped transformer. It offers higher transformer utilization and is
Forward Bias widely used in power supplies.
● P connected to +ve terminal
● N connected to –ve terminal A capacitor filter is connected across the load resistance of a rectifier to
● Depletion layer decreases reduce ripple and produce a smoother DC output. The capacitor charges to the
● Barrier potential reduces peak voltage during conduction and discharges slowly through the load when
● Large current flows the diode is OFF. This charging and discharging action smoothens the output
Reverse Bias waveform.
A
● P connected to –ve
● N connected to +ve The average value of an alternating quantity is the arithmetic mean of all its
● Depletion layer widens instantaneous values over one half cycle for a symmetrical waveform. It
● Barrier potential increases represents the equivalent DC value produced by the waveform. Average value
● Only leakage current flows is mainly used in rectifier calculations.
A Zener diode is a specially designed heavily doped PN junction diode that The Root Mean Square (RMS) value of an alternating quantity is the effective
N
operates in the reverse breakdown region without getting damaged. It value that produces the same heating effect in a resistor as an equivalent DC
maintains an almost constant output voltage over a wide range of current and current or voltage. It is the standard value used for AC power calculations.
is therefore widely used as a voltage regulator.
Reverse Bias A clipper circuit is an electronic circuit that removes or clips a portion of an
● Reverse voltage increases input waveform without affecting the remaining part. It uses diodes to limit the
● At Zener Voltage V_Z output voltage to a desired level. Clippers are used for wave shaping and
● Breakdown occurs voltage protection.
JA ● Current increases suddenly
● Voltage remains nearly constant
Zener breakdown is the phenomenon in which a heavily doped PN junction
● Positive clipper
● Negative clipper
● Biased clipper
Applications
diode, when operated in reverse bias, suddenly conducts a large reverse ● Wave shaping
current at a specific low reverse voltage called the Zener breakdown voltage ● Voltage limiter
(V_Z). It occurs due to the strong electric field across the thin depletion ● Over-voltage protection
region, which pulls electrons from their covalent bonds by quantum
mechanical tunneling. The process is non-destructive if the current is limited, A clamping circuit shifts the entire AC waveform to a different DC level
and the diode maintains an almost constant voltage, making it useful for without changing its shape. It uses a diode, capacitor, and resistor
voltage regulation. combination. Clampers are used to restore the DC level of signals in
N
communication and television circuits.
A photodiode is a PN junction semiconductor device that converts light energy Types
into electrical current. It is normally operated in reverse bias, where the ● Positive clamper
incident light generates electron-hole pairs, increasing the reverse current. The ● Negative clamper
photocurrent is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light. Applications
● TV circuits
Working Principle ● Signal restoration
SA
● Reverse biased ● DC level shifting
● Light falls on junction
● Electron-hole pairs generated A voltage doubler is a diode-capacitor circuit that produces an output DC
● Reverse current increases voltage approximately equal to twice the peak value of the input AC voltage. It
Applications works by charging capacitors during alternate half cycles and combining their
● Optical communication voltages at the output. It is useful where high voltage and low current are
● Smoke detector required.
● Automatic lighting Applications
● Barcode scanner ● CRT circuits
● IR receiver ● X-ray equipment
● High-voltage power supplies
A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a semiconductor diode that emits visible or ● Voltage multiplier circuits
infrared light when operated in forward bias. The emitted light is produced due
to the recombination of electrons and holes at the PN junction. LEDs have high A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three-layer, three-terminal
efficiency, low power consumption, long life, and fast switching speed. semiconductor device used for amplification and switching. It consists of two
PN junctions and uses both electrons and holes as charge carriers, hence
A half-wave rectifier converts alternating current (AC) into pulsating direct the name bipolar. The three terminals are Emitter (E), Base (B), and
current (DC) by allowing only one half-cycle of the input AC signal to pass Collector (C). A small base current controls a much larger collector current.
through the load. It uses a single diode and is the simplest type of rectifier. Its BJT consists of:
efficiency is low because only half of the input waveform is utilized. ● Emitter (E): Heavily doped, emits charge carriers.
● Base (B): Thin and lightly doped, controls carrier flow.
A full-wave rectifier converts both positive and negative half cycles of an AC ● Collector (C): Moderately doped, collects carriers.
input into pulsating DC output. It provides higher efficiency, lower ripple, and (a) NPN Transistor
Layers: Majority carriers → Electrons
N→P→N Higher conductivity
● Majority carriers → Electrons P-Channel JFET
● Most commonly used transistor. Majority carriers → Holes
(b) PNP Transistor Lower conductivity
Layers: Working
P→N→P ● Gate Reverse Biased
● Majority carriers → Holes. ● Drain Voltage Applied
● Drain Current flows
A BJT works by controlling the collector current using a small base current. ● Reverse voltage increases
Normally, the Emitter-Base junction is forward biased, while the ● Depletion region widens
Collector-Base junction is reverse biased. The emitter injects charge ● Channel narrows
carriers into the base, and most of these carriers are collected by the collector.
Thus, a small input current controls a large output current. The Shockley equation is an empirical equation used to describe the
A
relationship between the drain current (I_D) and the gate-to-source voltage
In Common Base configuration, the base terminal is common to both input (V_{GS}) of a Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET). It shows how the drain
and output circuits. The input is applied between emitter and base, while the current decreases as the reverse gate voltage increases. The equation is valid
output is taken from collector and base. It has low input impedance and high when the JFET operates in the saturation (pinch-off) region.
output impedance. It is mainly used in high-frequency amplifier circuits.
● Current Gain < 1 Drain current is the current flowing from the drain terminal to the source
● Voltage Gain High terminal through the conducting channel of a FET. It depends upon the
N
● Input Resistance Low gate-source voltage and drain-source voltage. In JFET and MOSFET, drain
● Output Resistance High current is controlled by the electric field at the gate.
● No phase reversal
A MOSFET is a voltage-controlled semiconductor device in which the gate is
In Common Emitter configuration, the emitter is common to both input and insulated from the channel by a thin silicon dioxide (SiO₂) layer. It has
output circuits. The input is applied between base and emitter, while the output extremely high input impedance and very low gate current. MOSFETs are
is taken between collector and emitter. It provides both high current gain and widely used in digital circuits, power electronics, and integrated circuits.
JA
voltage gain, making it the most widely used BJT configuration.
● Current Gain High
● Voltage Gain High
● Medium input resistance
Types
An Enhancement MOSFET has no conducting channel between source and
drain at zero gate voltage. When a suitable gate voltage is applied, a channel
● Medium output resistance is induced, allowing current to flow. It is normally OFF.
● Output is 180° out of phase Characteristics
● Voltage amplifier ● Normally OFF
● Audio amplifier ● Needs gate voltage
● Switching circuits ● Most commonly used
The Common Collector configuration has the collector terminal common to A Depletion MOSFET has a conducting channel already present between
N
both input and output. It is also called an Emitter Follower because the output source and drain. Current flows even when the gate voltage is zero. Applying
voltage follows the input voltage. It has high input resistance, low output gate voltage can either increase or decrease the drain current. It is therefore
resistance, and nearly unity voltage gain. normally ON.
● Voltage Gain ≈ 1 Characteristics
● High Current Gain ● Normally ON
● High Input Resistance ● Operates in both depletion and enhancement modes
● Low Output Resistance
SA
Applications Difference Between BJT and FET
● Buffer amplifier 1. BJT is a bipolar device because both electrons and holes take part
● Impedance matching in conduction, whereas FET is a unipolar device because only one
type of charge carrier conducts.
A Field Effect Transistor (FET) is a three-terminal semiconductor device in 2. BJT is current-controlled, whereas FET is voltage-controlled.
which current is controlled by an electric field rather than by current. It is a 3. BJT has low input impedance, whereas FET has very high input
unipolar device, meaning only one type of charge carrier takes part in impedance.
conduction. FET offers high input impedance, low power consumption, and low 4. BJT consumes more input power, whereas FET consumes very
noise. little input power.
Terminals 5. BJT has higher noise, whereas FET produces less noise.
● Gate (G) 6. BJT offers lower thermal stability, whereas FET has better
● Source (S) thermal stability.
● Drain (D) 7. BJT switching speed is comparatively lower, whereas FET
Types switches much faster.
1. JFET 8. BJT is mainly used for amplification, whereas FET is widely
2. MOSFET used in digital circuits and integrated circuits.
9. BJT requires base current for operation, whereas FET requires
A JFET is a voltage-controlled semiconductor device in which the current almost zero gate current.
flowing through the channel is controlled by the reverse-biased gate voltage. 10. Examples: BJT → NPN, PNP; FET → JFET, MOSFET.
The gate forms a PN junction with the conducting channel. JFET has very high
input impedance and low power consumption. An Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) is a high-gain, direct-coupled differential
Types voltage amplifier integrated circuit (IC) having two input terminals and one
N-Channel JFET output terminal. It amplifies the difference between two input voltages. An ideal
Op-Amp has infinite voltage gain, infinite input impedance, zero output Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) is the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can
impedance, and infinite bandwidth. It is widely used in amplifiers, filters, withstand without undergoing breakdown. The diode selected for a rectifier
oscillators, comparators, integrators, and differentiators. circuit must have a PIV rating greater than the applied reverse voltage.
Ideal Characteristics of Op-Amp
● Infinite open-loop gain (AOL = ∞) A virtual ground is a point in an operational amplifier (Op-Amp) circuit that
● Infinite input impedance remains at 0 V (ground potential) even though it is not physically connected
● Zero output impedance to the ground. It occurs in an ideal Op-Amp with negative feedback because
● Infinite bandwidth the voltage at the inverting input becomes equal to the non-inverting input.
● Infinite slew rate Virtual ground is widely used in inverting amplifiers, integrators, and
● Infinite CMRR differentiators.
● Infinite PSRR Key Points
● Zero offset voltage ● Voltage at virtual ground = 0 V
● No physical connection to ground
● Current into Op-Amp input ≈ 0
A
● Exists due to negative feedback
● Used in Op-Amp circuits
An Inverting Amplifier is an Op-Amp configuration in which the input signal is
applied to the inverting (−) terminal through an input resistor, while the
non-inverting terminal is grounded. The output is 180° out of phase with the
input signal. The voltage gain depends upon the ratio of feedback resistance to
input resistance.
N
Avalanche breakdown is the phenomenon in which a lightly doped PN
A Non-Inverting Amplifier is an Op-Amp circuit in which the input signal is junction diode, under high reverse-bias voltage, suddenly conducts a large
applied to the non-inverting (+) terminal. The output remains in phase with reverse current due to collision ionization. The accelerated charge carriers
the input signal and provides voltage amplification. It has very high input collide with atoms and generate more electron-hole pairs, resulting in an
impedance, making it suitable for sensor and instrumentation circuits. avalanche multiplication of carriers. It is reversible if the current is limited
externally.
An Integrator is an Op-Amp circuit whose output voltage is proportional to the Key Points
JA
time integral of the input voltage. It is obtained by replacing the feedback
resistor with a capacitor. Integrators are used in analog computers, waveform
generation, and signal processing.
● Occurs in lightly doped PN junctions
● Takes place under high reverse voltage
● Caused by collision ionization (impact ionization)
● Breakdown voltage is generally greater than 6 V
A Differentiator is an Op-Amp circuit whose output voltage is proportional to ● Used in avalanche diodes for voltage protection
the rate of change of the input voltage. It is obtained by replacing the input
resistor with a capacitor. Differentiators are commonly used in wave shaping A solar cell is a semiconductor PN junction device that converts solar (light)
and edge detection circuits. energy directly into electrical energy by the photovoltaic effect. When
Applications sunlight falls on the junction, electron-hole pairs are generated, producing a
● Pulse generator voltage and current without any external power supply. Solar cells are widely
● Edge detector used for clean and renewable energy generation.
N
● Wave shaping Working Principle
● High-frequency circuits ● Sunlight falls on the PN junction.
Difference Between Integrator and Differentiator ● Electron-hole pairs are generated.
1. Integrator performs integration, whereas differentiator performs ● The built-in electric field separates the charge carriers.
differentiation. ● Electrons flow through the external circuit, producing electric current.
2. Integrator has a capacitor in the feedback path, whereas Key Points
differentiator has a capacitor in the input path. ● Works on the photovoltaic effect
SA
3. Integrator converts a square wave into a triangular wave, whereas ● Converts light energy into electrical energy
differentiator converts a triangular wave into a square-like pulse. ● Operates without external bias
4. Integrator output depends on the accumulated input, whereas ● Renewable and pollution-free energy source
differentiator output depends on the rate of change of input. Applications
Half-wave vs Full-wave Rectifier ● Solar panels
1. Half-wave uses one diode, full-wave uses two (center-tap) or four ● Calculators
(bridge) diodes. ● Street lights
2. Half-wave rectifies only one half cycle, full-wave rectifies both half ● Satellites
cycles. ● Solar-powered water pumps
3. Efficiency of half-wave is 40.6%, while full-wave is 81.2%.
4. Ripple factor is 1.21 for half-wave and 0.482 for full-wave.
5. Half-wave output is less smooth; full-wave output is smoother.
6. Half-wave requires a simple circuit; full-wave is slightly more
complex.
Center-Tapped vs Bridge Rectifier
1. Center-tapped uses 2 diodes; bridge uses 4 diodes.
2. Center-tapped requires a center-tapped transformer; bridge does
not.
3. Transformer utilization factor is better in bridge.
4. PIV per diode is higher in center-tapped rectifier.
5. Bridge rectifier is more commonly used in power supplies.