JDT Islam College of Arts and Science

Subject: Statistical Foundation for Computer Applications (BCA2CJ102 / BCA2MN 101) Semester: II
Module Name: Module I - Descriptive Statistics

Notes Created by Noor Mohammed.

MODULE I: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS

1.1 Meaning and Definition

Statistics is not just about numbers; it is a method of decision-making in the face of uncertainty.
Etymology: The word 'Statistics' is derived from the Latin word Status, Italian word Statista, or
German word Statistik, all meaning "Political State". In ancient times, it was the "Science of Kings"
used to collect data on population and wealth for military and tax purposes.
Modern Definition (Croxton & Cowden): "Statistics is the science of collection, presentation,
analysis, and interpretation of numerical data."
Plural Sense: It refers to numerical facts (e.g., Population statistics, Employment statistics).
Singular Sense: It refers to the scientific method or techniques used to analyze data.

1.2 Functions of Statistics

1. Simplification of Complexity: The human mind cannot grasp huge amounts of raw data. Statistics
condenses this mass of data into a few significant figures (like Averages or Percentages).
2. Definiteness: It presents facts in a precise form. Instead of saying "production increased," statistics
says "production increased by 12%".
3. Comparison: It facilitates comparison between different phenomena (e.g., comparing the literacy
rates of Kerala and Bihar).
4. Formulating Policies: Government policies (budget, taxation, welfare) are framed based on
statistical data.
5. Forecasting: By analyzing past data, we can predict future trends (e.g., Weather forecasting, Stock
market trends).
6. Testing Hypotheses: It helps in determining the validity of assumptions (e.g., "Does this medicine
really cure the disease?").

1.3 Limitations
1. Deals with Aggregates: Statistics does not study individuals. A single death is a tragedy; a million
deaths is a statistic.
 2. Quantitative Only: It cannot directly study qualitative phenomena like honesty, intelligence, or
poverty unless they are converted into numbers (ranks).
3. Results are True only on Average: Statistical laws are not exact like the laws of Physics. They hold
true only in the long run.
4. Liable to Misuse: "Statistics can prove anything." Data can be manipulated to support false
conclusions if the context is ignored.

UNIT 2: DATA COLLECTION AND SAMPLING

2.1 Concept of Data

Qualitative Data (Attributes): Characteristics that cannot be measured numerically (e.g., Gender,
Religion, Pass/Fail).
Quantitative Data (Variables): Characteristics that can be measured numerically (e.g., Height,
Marks, Salary).

2.2 Sources of Data

2.2.1 Primary Data (First-Hand)

Data collected by the investigator personally for the first time for a specific purpose.
Methods:
1. Direct Personal Interview: Investigator meets informants face-to-face. (Most accurate,
expensive).
2. Indirect Oral Investigation: Interviewing third parties (witnesses). Used when informants are
reluctant (e.g., Police inquiries).
3. Information from Correspondents: Local agents appointed to send regular reports (e.g., News
agencies).
4. Mailed Questionnaire: Sending a list of questions via mail/email. (Economical for wide areas).
5. Schedules sent through Enumerators: Trained staff visit informants and fill out the forms.
(Used in Census).
 Getty Images

2.2.2 Secondary Data (Second-Hand)

Data that has already been collected and processed by someone else.
Published Sources: Government reports (Census, RBI), International bodies (WHO, IMF), Journals,
Books.
Unpublished Sources: Office records, Research theses, Hospital records.

2.2.3 Primary vs. Secondary Data

Basis Primary Data Secondary Data

Originality Original, raw material. Not original, finished product.

Cost & Time Expensive and time-consuming. Economical and quick.

Suitability Always fits the purpose. May need adjustment.

Reliability More reliable. Reliability depends on the source.

2.3 Population and Sample

Population (Universe): The aggregate of all items under study (e.g., All students in the college).
Sample: A representative part of the population selected for study (e.g., 50 students selected for a
survey).
Census Method: Studying every unit of the population. (Accurate but costly).
Sampling Method: Studying only a sample. (Economical and fast).

UNIT 3: MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY (AVERAGES)

A Measure of Central Tendency is a single value that represents the entire dataset. It describes the
characteristics of the entire mass of data.
3.1 Arithmetic Mean (AM)
The most popular average. It is the sum of all observations divided by the number of observations.

Mathematical Formulas:
1. Individual Series: X
∑X
ˉ
= ​

2. Discrete Series: X
ˉ
=
∑ fX

N
​

OR X
ˉ
= A +
∑ fd

N
​

3. Continuous Series: X OR X
∑ fm ∑ fd
ˉ ˉ × C
= ​
= A + ​

N N

🧮 SOLVED PROBLEMS: ARITHMETIC MEAN

Problem 1: Individual Series (Direct Method)
Calculate the mean marks of 10 students: 40, 50, 55, 78, 58, 60, 73, 35, 43, 48.

Solution:
Formula: X
∑X
ˉ
= ​

Step 1: Find the sum (∑ X ).

∑ X = 40 + 50 + 55 + 78 + 58 + 60 + 73 + 35 + 43 + 48 = 540

Step 2: Count number of items (n). n = 10

Step 3: Divide. X
ˉ
=
540

10
= 54

Result: Mean marks = 54.

Problem 2: Individual Series (Short-cut Method)

Calculate Mean: 100, 110, 120, 130, 140, 150.

Solution:
Let Assumed Mean (A) = 120.
Calculate Deviations (d = X − A ):
100 − 120 = −20

110 − 120 = −10

120 − 120 = 0

130 − 120 = 10

140 − 120 = 20

150 − 120 = 30

Sum of deviations (∑ d): −30 + 60 = 30.

Formula: X
∑d
ˉ
= A + ​

ˉ
X = 120 +
30

6
​
= 120 + 5 = 125 .
Problem 3: Discrete Series (Direct Method)
Calculate Mean: X: 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 f: 5, 8, 15, 16, 6

Solution:

Marks (X) Frequency (f) Product (fX)

10 5 50

20 8 160

30 15 450

40 16 640

50 6 300

Total N = 50 ∑ f X = 1600

Formula: X
∑ fX
ˉ
= ​

ˉ
X =
1600

50
​

= 32 .

Problem 4: Continuous Series (Step Deviation Method)

Calculate Mean: Class: 0-10, 10-20, 20-30, 30-40, 40-50 Freq: 7, 10, 15, 8, 10

Solution:
Mid-points (m): 5, 15, 25, 35, 45.
Let Assumed Mean (A) = 25.
Class Interval (C ) = 10.

Class Mid (m) f d

′
=
m−25

10
​
fd
′

0-10 5 7 -2 -14

10-20 15 10 -1 -10

20-30 25 (A) 15 0 0

30-40 35 8 1 8

40-50 45 10 2 20

Total N=50 ∑ fd
′
= 4
 ′

Formula: X
ˉ
= A + (
∑ fd

N
​

) × C

ˉ 4
X = 25 + ( ​
) × 10
50

ˉ
X = 25 + 0.8 = 25.8 .

Problem 5: Missing Frequency

The mean of the following distribution is 50. Find the missing frequency (p). Class: 0-20, 20-40, 40-
60, 60-80, 80-100 Freq: 17, p, 32, 24, 19

Solution:
1. Mid-points (m): 10, 30, 50, 70, 90.
2. Calculate f m:
17 × 10 = 170

p × 30 = 30p

32 × 50 = 1600

24 × 70 = 1680

19 × 90 = 1710

3. Sum:
∑ f = 92 + p

∑ f m = 5160 + 30p

4. Equation:

5160 + 30p
50 = ​

92 + p

50(92 + p) = 5160 + 30p

4600 + 50p = 5160 + 30p

50p − 30p = 5160 − 4600

20p = 560 ⇒ p = 28

Problem 6: Combined Mean

A class has two sections. Section A has 40 students with mean marks 50. Section B has 60 students
with mean marks 60. Find the combined mean.

Solution:
 ˉ
N1 = 40, X1 = 50
​ ​

ˉ
N2 = 60, X2 = 60
​ ​

Formula: X
ˉ +N X
N1 X ˉ
ˉ ​

1 2
​

2
​ ​

12
​
= ​

N1 +N2
​ ​

(40×50)+(60×60)
ˉ
X12 = ​ ​

40+60

ˉ
X12 = ​
2000+3600

100
​

=
5600

100
​

= 56 .

Problem 7: Corrected Mean

The mean of 100 observations was found to be 40. Later it was discovered that one observation was
wrongly read as 83 instead of 53. Find the correct mean.

Solution:
N = 100 , Incorrect Mean = 40.
Step 1: Find Incorrect Total. Incorrect ∑ X = 100 × 40 = 4000 .
Step 2: Adjust Total. Correct ∑ X = 4000 − 83(Wrong) + 53(Correct) Correct
∑ X = 4000 − 30 = 3970.

Step 3: Calculate Correct Mean. Correct Mean = 3970

100
​

= 39.7 .

3.2 Median
The Median is the middle-most value when data is arranged in ascending or descending order. It divides
the series into two equal parts. It is a positional average.

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🧮 SOLVED PROBLEMS: MEDIAN

Problem 8: Individual Series (Odd Number)
Find the median: 25, 15, 23, 40, 27, 25, 23, 25, 20.

Solution:
1. Arrange Ascending: 15, 20, 23, 23, 25, 25, 25, 27, 40.
2. N = 9 (Odd).
 3. Median Position = N +1

2
​
=
9+1

2
​

= 5
th
item.
4. The 5th item is 25.
5. Median = 25.

Problem 9: Individual Series (Even Number)

Find the median: 10, 32, 17, 5, 21, 19, 12, 28.

Solution:
1. Arrange Ascending: 5, 10, 12, 17, 19, 21, 28, 32.
2. N = 8 (Even).
3. Median = Average of ( N

2
​
)
th
and ( N

2
​
+ 1)
th
items.
4. Positions: 4 item (17) and 5 item (19).
th th

5. Median = 17+19

2
​

=
36

2
​

= 18 .

Problem 10: Discrete Series

Calculate Median: X: 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 f: 8, 15, 25, 12, 10

Solution:

X f c.f. (Cumulative Frequency)

10 8 8

20 15 23

30 25 48

40 12 60

50 10 70

N = 70 .
Rank = N +1

2
​
=
71

2
​

= 35.5 .
Look at c.f. column. The value just greater than 35.5 is 48.
The corresponding X value is 30.
Median = 30.

Problem 11: Continuous Series

Calculate Median: Class: 0-10, 10-20, 20-30, 30-40, 40-50 Freq: 5, 10, 20, 10, 5
Solution:

Class f c.f.

0-10 5 5

10-20 10 15 (cf)

20-30 20 (f) 35

30-40 10 45

40-50 5 50

Rank: N /2 = 50/2 = 25.

25 falls in c.f. 35. Median Class is 20-30.
Variables: L = 20, f = 20, cf = 15, h = 10 .
Formula:

N
​
− cf
2
M edian = L + × h
f

25 − 15
M edian = 20 + ​
× 10
20

10
M edian = 20 + ​

× 10
20

M edian = 20 + 5 = 25

Problem 12: Inclusive Series

Calculate Median: Class: 1-10, 11-20, 21-30... Solution:
Since there is a gap between 10 and 11, we must convert to Exclusive Series.
Adjustment Factor = (11 − 10)/2 = 0.5.
Subtract 0.5 from Lower Limit, Add 0.5 to Upper Limit.
New Classes: 0.5-10.5, 10.5-20.5, 20.5-30.5...
Proceed with standard continuous series calculation.

3.3 Mode
Mode is the value which occurs most frequently in a dataset. It corresponds to the peak of the
frequency curve.

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🧮 SOLVED PROBLEMS: MODE

Problem 13: Discrete Series (Inspection)
Find Mode: X: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25. f: 2, 5, 12, 10, 4. Solution:
Maximum frequency is 12.
The variable corresponding to 12 is 15.
Mode = 15.

Problem 14: Continuous Series

Calculate Mode: Class: 0-10, 10-20, 20-30, 30-40, 40-50 Freq: 3, 5, 10, 8, 4

Solution:
1. Identify Modal Class: Highest frequency is 10. Class is 20-30.
2. Variables:
L = 20

f1 = 10
​
(Frequency of modal class)
f0 = 5
​
(Frequency of preceding class)
f2 = 8
​
(Frequency of succeeding class)
h = 10

3. Formula:

f1 − f0
​ ​

Z = L + ​

× h
2f1 − f0 − f2
​ ​ ​
 10 − 5
Z = 20 + ​

× 10
2(10) − 5 − 8

5
Z = 20 + ​

× 10
20 − 13

50
Z = 20 + ​
= 20 + 7.14 = 27.14
7

Problem 15: Empirical Relation

If Mean = 62 and Median = 60, find Mode.

Solution:
Formula: M ode = 3(M edian) − 2(M ean)
M ode = 3(60) − 2(62)

M ode = 180 − 124 = 56 .

3.4 Geometric Mean and Harmonic Mean

Problem 16: Harmonic Mean (Individual)

Find HM of 2, 4, 8.

Solution:
1. Reciprocals (1/X ):
1/2 = 0.5

1/4 = 0.25

1/8 = 0.125

2. Sum (∑ 1/X ) = 0.5 + 0.25 + 0.125 = 0.875.

3. n = 3 .
4. HM =
n

∑(1/X )
​
=
3

0.875
​

= 3.428 .

UNIT 4: MEASURES OF DISPERSION

Dispersion measures the extent to which items vary from the central value. It is the "spread" or "scatter"
of data.

4.1 Range
The simplest measure. Difference between Largest and Smallest value.
Problem 17: Range
Data: 10, 20, 5, 40, 15. Solution:
Largest (L) = 40. Smallest (S ) = 5.
Range = 40 − 5 = 35.
Coefficient of Range = L−S

L+S
​
=
35

45
​

= 0.77 .

4.2 Standard Deviation (SD)

The most important measure of dispersion. It is the square root of the arithmetic mean of squared
deviations from the Mean. Denoted by σ (Sigma).

🧮 SOLVED PROBLEMS: DISPERSION

Problem 18: Standard Deviation (Individual - Direct Method)
Data: 10, 12, 14, 16, 18.

Solution:
1. Calculate Mean: X
ˉ
= 70/5 = 14 .
2. Table:

X Deviation x = (X − 14) x
2

10 -4 16

12 -2 4

14 0 0

16 2 4

18 4 16

Total ∑x
2
= 40

3. Formula: σ
2
∑x
= ​ ​

4. Calculation: σ =
40

5
​ ​
= 8 = 2.828
​
.

Problem 19: Standard Deviation (Discrete Series)

Data: X: 6, 9, 12; f: 3, 4, 3.

Solution (Assumed Mean A = 9):

 X f d = X − 9 d
2
fd fd
2

6 3 -3 9 -9 27

9 4 0 0 0 0

12 3 3 9 9 27

Total 10 0 54

Formula: σ
∑ f d2 ∑ fd
2
= ​
− ( ​
) ​

N N

σ =
54

10
​
− 0 = ​
5.4 = 2.32 ​
.

Problem 20: Standard Deviation (Continuous Series)

Data: 0-10 (4), 10-20 (3), 20-30 (2), 30-40 (1).

Solution:
1. Mid-points: 5, 15, 25, 35.
2. Assumed Mean (A): 15. Class Interval (C ) = 10.
3. Step Deviations (d ): -1, 0, 1, 2. ′

4. Calculate f d : -4, 0, 2, 2. Sum = 0.

′

5. Calculate f d : ′2

2
4 × (−1) = 4

3 × 0 = 0

2 × 1 = 2

1 × 4 = 4

Sum = 10.

6. Formula: σ
′2 ′

.
∑ fd ∑ fd 2 10
= ​
− ( ​
) ​

× C σ = − 0 × 10 = 1 × 10 = 10
​

N N 10

Problem 21: Coefficient of Variation (CV)

Used to check consistency. Lower CV means higher consistency. Formula: C V =
σ
ˉ
X
​
× 100 .

Question: Batsman A: Mean = 50, SD = 5. Batsman B: Mean = 60, SD = 10. Which batsman is more
consistent?

Solution:
C VA =​
5

50
​
× 100 = 10% .
C VB = ​
10

60
​
× 100 = 16.67% .
 Conclusion: Batsman A has a lower CV, so he is more consistent.

Problem 22: Variance

If SD is 12, find Variance. Solution:
Variance = (Standard Deviation) 2

Variance = 12 2
= 144 .

PRACTICE QUESTIONS FOR STUDENTS

1. Calculate the Mean, Median, and Mode for the following data: Class: 0-10, 10-20, 20-30, 30-40,
40-50 Frequency: 5, 15, 25, 10, 5.
2. Find the Standard Deviation of the first 5 natural numbers.
3. Convert "More than 10" cumulative frequency series into a normal frequency distribution.
4. Calculate the Harmonic Mean of 5, 10, 20.
5. If the Mean of a distribution is 25 and Median is 24, use the empirical relation to find the Mode.
6. Which is more stable? Factory A (Mean wage 5000, SD 100) or Factory B (Mean wage 6000, SD
150).
7. Calculate the Weighted Mean if Marks are 80, 70, 60 and Weights are 1, 2, 3.
8. Find the Range and Coefficient of Range for: 100, 200, 150, 50, 300.
9. Explain the difference between Primary and Secondary Data with examples.
10. Describe the various methods of sampling.
Notes Created by Noor Mohammed..