Unit 3 [4]:

Geometric Alignment and Design

 Content

 Basic physical elements of a highway

 Factors Influencing Highway Design
 Design speed and geometric elements dependent on design speed
 Design of the Alignment
 Sight distances (Stopping sight distance, & Overtaking sight distance)
 Horizontal alignment
 Vertical alignment
 Super elevation
 Vertical alignment

 The vertical alignment is composed of a series of straight-line gradients connected by curves,

 Normally parabolic in form
 These vertical parabolic curves must be provided at all changes in gradient.
 The curvature will be determined by the design speed, being sufficient to provide adequate driver
comfort with appropriate stopping sight distances provided.

 Crest/Summit curves
 Sag/ Valley curves

Length of vertical curves

L = K(p - q)

A= p-q
 Vertical alignment

International norms/ British standard

UTG 1
Vertical alignment
 Vertical alignment
Parabolic formula
The formula for determining the co-ordinates of points along a typical vertical curve is

where
p and q are the gradients of the two straights being joined
by the vertical curve in question.
L is the vertical curve length
x and y are the relevant co-ordinates in space
At the intersection point PI: x = L/2
For proof refer:
Roger, M., Enright, B. (2003). Highway Engineering
(3rd ed.), Wiley, Blackwell, Section 6.6.4, pages
180-182

The co-ordinates of the highest/lowest point on the parabolic curve, frequently required for the estimation
of minimum sight distance requirements, are:
 Vertical alignment
Crossfalls

 To ensure adequate rainfall run-off from the surface of the highway, a minimum crossfall of 2.5% is
advised,
 It should be either in the form of a straight camber extending from one edge of the carriageway to the
other or as one sloped from the centre of the carriageway towards both edges
 Vertical alignment
Vertical crest curve design and sight distance requirements

 The curvature of crest curves should be sufficiently large in order

to provide adequate sight distance for the driver.
 In order to provide this sight distance, the curve length L is a
critical parameter.
 Too great a length is costly to the developer while too short a
length compromises critical concerns such as safety and vertical
clearance to structures

For vertical crest curves, the relevant parameters are:

 The sight distance S
 The length of the curve L
 The driver’s eye height H1
 The height of the object on the highway H2
 Minimum curve length Lm.

In order to estimate the minimum curve length, Lm, of a crest curve, two conditions must be considered.
 The required sight distance is contained within the crest curve length (S < L),
 The sight distance extending into the tangents either side of the parabolic crest curve (S > L).
 Vertical alignment
Vertical crest curve design and sight distance requirements
For S<= L

If the object is assumed to have zero height (H2 = 0),

If the object is assumed to be at the driver’s eye height (H1 = H2):

For derivation refer

Roger, M., Enright, B. (2003). Highway Engineering (3rd ed.), Wiley, Blackwell, Section 6.6.6, pages 183-187
 Vertical alignment
Vertical crest curve design and sight distance requirements
For S>L

If the object is assumed to have zero height (H2 = 0),

If the object is assumed to be at the driver’s eye height (H1 = H2):

For derivation refer

Roger, M., Enright, B. (2003). Highway Engineering (3rd ed.), Wiley, Blackwell, Section 6.6.6, pages 183-187
 Vertical alignment
Vertical sag curve design and sight distance requirements
The two main criteria used as a basis for designing vertical sag curves are
 Driver comfort and
 Clearance from structures
Driver comfort where
L is the required vertical sag curve length (m)
V is the speed of the vehicle (km/hr)
A is the algebraic difference in the straight-line gradients
The vertical radial acceleration of the vehicle is assumed to be 0.3 m/s2
Clearance from structures

where
Cl is the clearance height on the relevant structure located on the sag curve, generally taken in
ideal circumstances at 5.7 m for bridge structures.

 The sight distance S

 The length of the curve L
 The driver’s eye height H1
 The height of the object on the highway H2
 Gradient

 The absolute maximum for motorways is 4%.

 This threshold rises to 8% for all-purpose roads.
 Sight Distance

The distance along the center line of the road at which a driver has visibility of an object, stationary or
moving at a specified height above the carriage way is known as sight distance. Sight distance is the
length of road visible ahead to the driver at any instance.

Sight distance available from a point is the actual distance along the road surface, over which a driver
from a specified height above the carriage way has visibility of stationary or moving objects.

Three sight distance situations are considered for design:

 Stopping sight distance (SSD) or the absolute minimum sight distance

 Intermediate sight distance (ISD) is defined as twice SSD
 Overtaking sight distance (OSD) for safe overtaking operation
 Head light sight distance is the distance visible to a driver during night driving under
the illumination of head lights
 Safe sight distance to enter into an intersection
 Sight Distance
The computation of sight distance depends on:

 Reaction time of the driver

 Speed of the vehicle
 Efficiency of brakes
 Frictional resistance between the tyre and the road
 Gradient of the road

Stopping sight distance

Stopping sight distance (SSD) is the minimum sight distance available on a highway at any spot having
sufficient length to enable the driver to stop a vehicle traveling at design speed, safely without collision with
any other obstruction.

 There is a term called safe stopping distance and is one of the important measures in traffic engineering. It is
the distance a vehicle travels from the point at which a situation is first perceived to the time the deceleration is
complete.
 Drivers must have adequate time if they are to suddenly respond to a situation.
 Thus in highway design, sight distance at least equal to the safe stopping distance should be provided.
Stopping sight distance Sight Distance

 The stopping sight distance is the sum of lag distance and the braking distance.
 Lag distance is the distance the vehicle travelled during the reaction time t and is given by vt,
where v is the velocity in m∕sec2.
 Braking distance is the distance traveled by the vehicle during braking operation.

SSD = lag distance + braking distance and given by:

The coefficient of friction f is given below for various
design speed.

where v is the design speed in m∕sec,

t is the reaction time in sec,
g is the acceleration due to gravity and
f is the coefficient of friction.

In slopes

Where n is the gradient

Overtaking sight distance Sight Distance

 The overtaking sight distance is the minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of a vehicle
intending to overtake the slow vehicle ahead safely against the traffic in the opposite direction.
 The overtaking sight distance or passing sight distance is measured along the center line of the
road over which a driver with his eye level 1.2 m above the road surface can see the top of an
object 1.2 m above the road surface.

The factors that affect the OSD are:

 Velocities of the overtaking vehicle, overtaken vehicle and of the vehicle coming in
the opposite direction.
 Spacing between vehicles, which in-turn depends on the speed
 Skill and reaction time of the driver
 Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle
 Gradient of the road

Time-space diagram: Illustration of overtaking sight distance

Stopping sight distance Sight Distance

The overtaking sight distance consists of three parts

 d1 the distance traveled by overtaking vehicle A during
the reaction time t = t1 - t0
 d2 the distance traveled by the vehicle during the actual
overtaking operation T = t3-t1
 d3 is the distance traveled by on-coming vehicle C
during the overtaking operation (T).

OSD= d1+d2+d3

Time-space diagram: Illustration of overtaking

sight distance

Vb is the speed of the of the overtaking moving vehicle in m/s

t= reaction time of the driver in seconds
S= spacing between the two vehicles in m
T= actual overtaking time
Sight distance at intersections Sight Distance

At intersections where two or more roads meet, visibility should be provided for the drivers
approaching the intersection from either sides.
They should be able to perceive a hazard and stop the vehicle if required.
Stopping sight distance for each road can be computed from the design speed.
The sight distance should be provided such that the drivers on either side should be able to see each
other.

Design of sight distance at intersections may be used on

three possible conditions:
[Link] approaching vehicle to change the speed
[Link] approaching vehicle to stop
[Link] stopped vehicle to cross a main road

Sight distance at intersections