AC Machines Synchronous Generators

MODULE –III
3. SYNCHRONOUS GENERatORS
1. Electrical Machine:
It is a device, which converts one form of energy into another form of energy by
utilizing the force as motion of electric charge is called known as ‘electrical machine’.
1.1.1. Synchronism:
Achieved a coincidence within a point of time is known as synchronism.
1.1.2. Introduction:
AC system has a number of advantages over dc system. Now
Now-a-days
days the three phase AC
system is being used for generation, transmiss
transmission and distribution of power.
 The machine which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy at particular voltage
with a fixed frequency is called an “alternator or synchronous generator or AC generator” or
a machine for generating alternating curre
currents
nts is referred to as an alternator.
 The term AC Generator is also frequently used, in place of alternator and this is often
contracted to just generator.
 The frequency is an important property of AC electrical energy. Frequency is depends on
speed, therefore
ore to achieve fixed frequency the machine must be always runs only at one
speed called synchronous speed. That’s the reason the alternator is called Synchronous
Generator.
 Alternators are the primary source of till the electrical energy which we consumed
consumed. These
machines are the largest energy converters in the world.
 The prime mover which is used for generation purpose is turbines. For commercial and
industrial purpose the four
four-stroke
stroke engines are used as prime movers to give mechanical
power to the alternators.

1.2. Operating Principle of an Alternator

Alternator:
An alternator operates on the same fundamental principle
of electro-magnetic induction as a dc generator. i.e., when
the flux cuts the conductor (or) conductor cuts the flux an
emf induced in the conductor.
The magnitude of induced emf is E = Blv sinθ
Where, θ = angle between B and direction of conductor
v = velocity of conductor (m/sec)
B = flux density (wb/m2 of Tesla)
l = length of the conductor (m)

Saravanan T Y M. Tech., (Ph.D.) NEC∷GUDUR

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Flemings Right Hand Rule:

The direction of induced emf or current can be finding by
applying this rule. If,
Fore finger → indicates direction of flux
Thumb → indicates direction of motion
motio of conductor
Then,
Center finger → indicates direction of induced emf or current.

In dc generator, the field poles are stationary and the armature conductor’s rotate. The
alternating induced emf in armature conductors are converted to a dc voltage at the brushes by means
of the commutator.
In alternators,, there is no commutator required to supply elect
electrical
rical energy with an alternating
voltage. Therefore, it is not necessary that armature be the rotating one. The alternator also has an
armature winding and a field winding.
inding. But the important difference between the two is,
For an alternator, armature windi
winding
ng is placed or housed in a stator instead of rotor in a dc
generator. The field winding is housed in a rotor poles. It is more usually convenient, advantageous
to place the field winding on rotating part (rotor) and armature winding on stationary part (st
(stator).

1.2.1. Differences between DC & AC Generator

Generators:

DC GENERATOR ALTERNATOR
 Faradays law of electromagnetic induction
induction.  Faradays law of electromagnetic induction.
induction
 Fleming’s right hand rule.  Fleming’s right hand rule.
rule
 Stationary field.  Rotating field.
 Rotating armature.  Stationary armature.
 Conductors cut the flux.  Flux cuts the conductor.
conductor
 Large size of brushes and brush gear required  Small size of brushes and brush gear
for rotor because armature current is high equal arrangement required for rotor because field
to the load. current is small.
 Prime mover as IC engine or fly wheels.  Prime mover as Turbines.
Turbines

1.2.2. Advantages of stationary armature:

The field winding of an alternator is placed on the rotor and connected to dc supply tthrough
the slip ring. The 3- armature winding is placed on the stator. This arrangement has the following
advantages.
1. “Easier
Easier to insulate the stationary winding
winding”” for high voltages because they are not subjected
to centrifugal force and extra space is avai
available on stator.

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2. “Stationary 3- armature winding is directly connected to the load

load,, so current collection is
easy”” without giving through large, unreliable slip
slip-rings and brushes.
3. “One (or) two slip-rings
rings are required for dc supply to the field winding on the rotor”. Since
exciting current is small, the slip rings and brush gear required are of light construction”.
4. “Due
Due to simple and robust construction of the rotor
rotor”,
”, higher speed of rotating dc filed is
possible so that output electrical power increased.
5. Stationary armature windings can be cooled more efficiently.
6. “Rigid
Rigid and convenient construction
construction”” because stationary armature winding is capable of
handling high voltage and current.
7. “Reduced
Reduced armature leakage reactance
reactance”,, therefore better the voltage regulation.
regula
 In addition, water cooling can be installed more conveniently on stator rather than
rotor by flexible water tube connection.
8. “Lesser rotor weight”” because field winding requires less amount of copper. Reduces the
inertia due to low-priced
priced bearings an
andd also longer life because of “minimum wear and tear”.
The above are the major advantages of the stationary armature windings.
Note: All Alternators above 5KVA employs Stationary Armature, Rotating Field.
All synchronous generators and motors require direct current for excitation.

1.3. Construction Details:

An alternator has 3- armature winding on the stator and dc field winding on the rotor.
1.3.1. Stator:
Stator is the stationary part of the machine and is built up of sheet steel laminations hav
having
slots on its inner periphery. The slots are laminated and are insulated from each other by a tthin
coating of oxide and enamel; it is in hollow cylindrical shape.
Stator is made with Cold Rolled Non Oriented (CRNGO) steel (have
( similar magnetic
properties
ies in all directions in plan of the sheet
sheet) with 3% silicon. The addition of silicon increases the
resistivity of the magnetic material so that eddy current losses will further reduce.
Open slots are used, permitting easy installation of stator coils and easy removal in case of
repair. A 3- winding is placed in these slots and serves as the armature winding of alternator.

 The armature winding is always connected in star and the neutral is connected to the load because,
for star connection,
Vl
Vph =
√3
Since the emf is proportional to number of turns, so that it requires less number of turns than
Delta. Neutral protects the system in case of ground faults.

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AC Machines Synchronous Generators

1.3.2. Rotor:
The rotor carries a field windi
winding
ng which is supplied with direct current (dc) through two slip
rings by a separate dc source.
 Depending on the construction of rotor the alternators are classified into two types.
i. Salient or projecting pole type.
ii. Non-Salient
Salient or Cylindrical or Wound type.

(i). Salient or Projecting pole type:

 In this type, salient or projecting poles are mounted on a large steel (circular type) frame which
is fixed to the shaft of an alternator as shown in figure.
 The poles are made of thick steel laminations riveted togeth
together
er and attached to a rotor by a
dovetail joint. The individual field pole windings are connected in series in such a way that
when a field winding is energized by the dc exciter, adjacent poles have opposite polarities.
 Low and medium speed alternators (1
(120 – 500rpm) such as those driven by diesel engines or
water turbines have salient pole rotors due to the following reasons:
a) The salient field poles would cause an excessive windage loss if driven at high speed and
would tend to produce “noise”.
b) Salient-pole
pole construction cannot be made strong enough to withstand the mechanical
stresses to which they may be subjected at higher speeds.
 Since a frequency of 50Hz is
required, we must use a large number of
poles (P) on the rotor of slow speed (N)
alternator.

120*f
120 1
NS = ⇒ NS =
P P

Low speed rotors always posses a

large diameter to provide the necessary space
for the poles. Consequently, salient pole type
rotors have large diameters and short axial
lengths.
The pole face
ace is so shaped that the radial air gap length increases from the pole centre to pole
tips. This makes the flux distribution over the armature uniform to generate sinusoidal waveform of
emf. The pole shoe covers about 2/3rd of pole pitch. Poles are laminated
ted to reduce eddy current
losses.

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AC Machines Synchronous Generators

(ii). Non – Salient pole type or cylindrical or wound rotor:

In this type, the rotor is made of smooth solid forged steel radial cylinder of nickel, chromium
and molybdenum to increase the mechanical strength having a number of slots along the outer
periphery.
 According to design 2/3rd rotor periphery is
slotted to accommodate the field winding and
1/3rd is left, i.e., un slotted is for the formation
of poles.
 The field windings are embedded in these slots
and are connected
nected in series to the slip
slip–rings
through which they are energized by the dc
exciter. It is clear that the
he poles formed are non
non-
salient i.e., they do not project out from the
rotor surface.
 The air gap is uniform and flux distribution is
sinusoidal.
 High-Speed
Speed alternator’s (1500 or 3000 rpm) are driven by steam turbines
turbines,, gas turbines and use of
non-salient pole rotor’s due to the following reasons:
a) The type of construction has mechanical robustness and gives noise less operation at
high speeds.
b) The flux distribution
istribution around the periphery is nearly a sine wave and hence a better emf
wave form is obtained rather than salient pole rotor.
 Since steam turbine runs at high speed and a frequency of 50Hz is required, we need a small
number of poles i.e., 2 and 4. For a 2-pole it is 3000rpm and 4-pole
pole it is 1500rpm.
 It possesses small diameter and very long axial lengths because high speed of rotation produces
strong centrifugal forces which impose an upper limit on the diameter. Therefore, high
high-power &
high speed rotors have to be very long.
 These machines are suitable for Steam power plants, Gas power plants and Nuclear power plant.

The special features of non

non-salient
salient pole field structure are as follows.
1. Better emf waveform obtained.
2. Noiseless operati
operation.
3. Robust construction.
4. Less windage loss.
5. Highest operating speed possible.
6. Dynamic balancing is better.

Saravanan T Y M. Tech., (Ph.D.) NEC∷GUDUR

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 AC Machines Synchronous Generators

1.4. Operation of an Alternator

Alternator:
The rotor winding is energized from the dc exciter and alternate ‘N’ and ‘S’ poles are
developed on the rotor. When
en the rotor is rotated in anti
anti-clockwise
clockwise direction by a prime mover, the
stator (or) armature conductors are cut by the magnetic flux of rotor poles.
Consequently, emf is induced in the armature conductors due to electromagnetic
induction.
on. The induced emf is alternating since ‘N’ and ‘S’ poles of rotor alternately pass the
armature conductors.
The direction of induced emf can be found by Fleming’s right hand rule and frequency is given by,

N*P
F=
120
Where, N = speed of rotor (rpm)
P = number of rotor poles.

 The above figure shows star

star-connected
connected armature winding and dc field winding. When the
rotor is rotated, a 3- voltage is induced in the armature winding. The magnitude of the
induced depends upon the speed of rotation and the dc exiting current.
 The magnitude of emf in each phase of the armature winding is the same. However, they
differ in phase by 1200 electrica
electrical as shown in the phasor diagram.

1.5. Supply Frequency:

The frequency of induced emf in the armature conductors depends upon speed and number of
the poles.
Let,
N = rotor speed (rpm)
P = number of rotor poles
F = Frequency of emf (Hz)
Consider a stator conductor that is successively swept by ‘N’ and ‘S’ poles of the rotor. If a
positive voltage is induced when a N
N-pole
pole sweeps across the conductor, a similar negative voltage is
induced when a ‘S’ – pole sweeps by.

Saravanan T Y M. Tech., (Ph.D.) NEC∷GUDUR

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 AC Machines Synchronous Generators

 This means that one complete cy

cycle
cle of emf is generated in the conductor as a pair of poles passes it.
i.e., one N-pole
pole and the adjacent following S
S-pole.
pole. The same is true for every other armature
conductor.
 We know that from graphical representation of graphical plot, the rotating field travels a distance
covered by 2-poles.
P
 Number of cycles for one revolution = for ‘P’ pole machine.
machine
2
N
Number of revolution /second = (sec)
60

no. of cycles No. of revolution

No. of cycles per second = ×
revolutions second

P N
= *
2 60
But number of cycles / second is its emf’s frequency.
PN
 F = Frequency =
120
It may be noted
ted that ‘N’ is the synchronous speed. For a given alternator, the number
of rotor poles is fixed and therefore, the alternator must be run at synchronous speed to give an
output of desired frequency. For this reason, an alternator is sometimes called sync
synchronous
generator.
Note:-
In other words, the synchronous machines doubly excited energy
energy--conversion devices. In
general, the generated induced emf is depends on the relative motive between the field flux lines and
armature conductors.

 If it is working as a motor, the field winding is energized from a dc source and its armature
winding is connected to ac source.
 Finally the synchronous
ynchronous machine delivers or exports ac power.
1.5.1. Mechanical degrees: the degree of physical or mechanical rotation a single conductor
co in an
alternator.
1.5.2. Electrical degrees: the degree or the cycle of emf induced in a single conductor in an
alternator
Consider a 2- pole Alternator
Alternator, when a conductor rotates in the field, the emf induced in the
conductor will be maximum when tthe
he conductor is at the center of the pole and the emf induced will
be minimum when the conductor is in the middle of the gap between the two poles.
For one complete rotation of the conductor in the field - One complete
te cycle of emf is generated in
the conductorr (Positive half cycle at South Pole and negative half cycle at North Pole).

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AC Machines Synchronous Generators

Thee same way when we consider a 4-pole alternator a single conductor when completing one
mechanical rotation will cross the four poles there by giving the induced emf graph with two positive
half cycles and two negative half cycles which gives us two complete cycles of induced emf.
So for One Mechanical rotation (360 degrees) the induced emf completes two cycles
i.e., 360 * 2 = 720 degrees in terms of the sine wave
So, the relation between Electrical and Mechanical degrees can be written as

number of poles (P)

θelectrical = * θmechanical
2

1.6. Differences between Salient and Non

Non-Salient pole type rotors:

[Link] SALIENT POLE TYPE ROTOR NON – SALIENT POLE TYPE ROTOR

This type of rotor is having large This type of rotor is having small diameters
1.
diameters and small axial length. and long axial length.
Poles are separately projected to the large Poles are in-built
built to the solid forged steel
2.
cylindrical steel frame. radial cylinder.
Simple in construction, N = 150 to
3. Robust in construction, N=1500 to 3000rpm
1500rpm
Low and medium operating speed.
4. High operating speed (1500, 3000rpm)
(120 to 400rpm)
Somewhat noisy operation due to air
air-gap
Noiseless operation and air friction is
5. between the poles, air friction is
minimum.
maximum.
These are employed with hydraulic
6. Employed with steam turbines i.e., turbo type.
turbines and diesel engines.
The emf wave form is not a exact one, Better emf wave form will obtained, small
7.
large diameter, short
rt axial length. diameter & large axial length.
Poles are laminated to reduce the eddy
8. Less windage (air resistance) loss.
current loss.

9. Rotor surface is not smooth. Rotor surface is smooth.

10. Dynamic balancing is less in sufficient. Dynamic balancing is better.

1.7. Basic terms related to windings:

Conductor:
A length of wire which is used for energy
energy–conversion
conversion process is called conductor.
Turn: One turn consists of two conductors. In a figure the AB and DE is a coil side or conductors
form a turn.

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Coil:
One coil consists of number of turns. One coil has one turn shown in fig. (a)
One coil has two turns shown in fig. (b)
Multi turn coil has shown in fig. (c) i.e. one coil has more than two turns
turns.

Coil side:
One coil with any number of turns having two coil sides or conductors i.e. PQ is one coil side
one turn and ST is another will side.
Pitch:
The term pitch indicates a particular method of measurement in terms of coil sides and teeth.
Pole pitch:
A pole pitch is defined as the distance between two adjacent poles. Pole pitch is always 1800
electrical.

Coil span or coil-pitch:

The distance between two coil sides of coil is called coil
coil-span
span or coil-Pitch.
coil It is usually
measured in terms
ms of teeth’s, slots.

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Full-pitched winding:
If pole pitch is equal to coil
coil-span or coil-pitch
pitch then that type of winding is called full-pitched
full
winding.
Short-pitched winding:
If the winding has pole pitch is not equal to coil span (or) coil span is less than pole-pitch is
called known as short-pitch
pitch winding.

Back-pitch (YB):
The distance measured in between two coil sides of a turn is called known as back pitch. (YB)
Front pitch (YF):
The distance between the second conductor of one coil and first conductor of second coil is
called front pitch (YF)
Resultant Pitch (YR):
The distance between the beginnings of one will and the beginning of the next coil to which it
is connected called resultant pitch. (YR)

1.8. Armature windings:

The armature windings
ngs of dc machines are usually closed circuit windings but alternators
winding may be either closed
ed giving delta connections or open giving star connections. These are
classified as follows.
 Distributed and concentrated windings.
 Closed and opened windings
windings.
 Single layer and double layer winding.
 Full--pitched and short-pitched windings.
 Integral and Fractional
Fractional-slot windings.

In general, the armature windings in Synchronous Machines are classified as follows.

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AC Machines Synchronous Generators

Armature Winding

Concentrated Winding

Distributed Winding

Full Pitched Winding

Short Pitched Winding

Integral Slot Winding

Fractional Slot Winding

(i). Distributed and Concentrated type windings

windings:
In concentrated type winding, all the winding turns are wound together in series to form one
multi turn coil. This type of windings is used as field windings in salient pole synchronous machine
as well as dc machines.
 In concentrated coils, all the turns have some magnetic axis. The primary and secondary
windings
ngs of transformers are of concentrated type.
 If one slot per pole (or) slots equal to number of poles are employed, then concentrated
winding in obtained.
 Concentrated windings give maximum induced emf’s for a given number of conductors but
the wave form of induced emf is not exactly of sinusoidal form.
If the conductors are placed in several slots under one pole, the type winding is called
distributed winding.
 Otherwise, all the turns are arranged in several full-pitch or fractional--pitch coils. These coils
are then housed in the slots spread around the air
air-gap
gap periphery to form phase or commutator
winding.
 Stator and rotor of induction machines, the armatures of both synchronous and dc machines
have of distributed type windings.
Advantages of distributed windings
windings:
a) The harmonic emf is reduced and so the wave form is improved.
b) It diminishes armature reaction and armature reactance.

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AC Machines Synchronous Generators

c) The core is better utilized as a number of small slots evenly spaced.

d) Temperature rise is uniformly distributed.
e) Cooling is effective.
f) Armature winding is mechanically balanced well.
The disadvantage is small reduction in fundamental voltage.

(ii). Closed and Opened windings

windings:
The closed windings are only used for commutator machines i.e., such as dc and ac
commutator
tor machines. For this there is a closed path, if one starts from any point on the winding
and traverses it, one again reaches the starting point from one where had started.
 It should be housed at outset of armature always using the double layer windings. Each coil
in double layer winding has its one coilside in top layer and its other will side on bottom
layer.
 The closed type windings are two types.
a. Simplex lap winding.
b. Simplex wave winding.
The major difference between above two is depends on the manner connecting the coil ends to the
commutator segments.
For lap winding, the two coil-ends
ends of a coil are connected to the two adjacent commutator segments.
For wave winding, the two coil
coil-ends
ends of a coil are bent in opposite directions and connected to
commutator pole-pitches (3600) apart.
tor segments which two pole
The open-windings
windings are used only for ac machines like synchronous machines, induction
machines, etc. open windings terminate at suitable number of slip
slip-rings or terminals. Open windings
are always of star type Close windings are of - type connection.
ype connection. C
(iii). Single layer and Double layer windings
windings:
If the winding of one coil-side
side occupies the total slot area, then it is called single layer winding.

Advantages:
The following are the advantages of single layer winding.
 Higher efficiency and quite operation because of narrow slot openings.
 Space factor for slots is higher due to absence of inter layer separator.

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 The number of coils, the number of turns per coil, the coil pitch, the numb
number of circuits and the
connection of the phases are give the desired emf wave form.
In case the slot contains even number of coil sides in two or double layers, than the winding
is called as double layer winding.

arranged to be connected either Y or ,, with leads brought out from both
 The winding may be arrange
ends of each phase to make this possible.
Advantages:
Ease in manufacture of coils and lower cost of winding.
Less number of coils is required as spare in the case of winding repairs.
Fractional slot windings, pitch coils are employed.
Lower leakage reactance and therefore better performance and more economical.

 Modern practice all over the world favors use of double layer windings. Single layer winding is
only employed for small ratingg ac machines and where as double layer windings are more common
above 5KW machines.
(iv). Full-pitch and short-pitch
pitch or chorded windings
windings:
 If the coil-span or coil-pitch
pitch is equal to the pole-pitch
pitch then the winding is termed as “full-
“full
pitch winding” shown in fig
figure.
 If the coil-span or coil-pitch
pitch is less than the pole-
pole
pitch (1800) then the winding is termed as “short-pitch
“short
/ chorded winding” as shown in fig.
 If there are ‘S’ slots (or teeth’s) and ‘P’ poles, then
S
pole pitch = P slots per pole = 1800 electrical

α = Short-Pitch angle

S
If Coil-Pitch = P , it results in full-pitch
full winding
S
If Coil-Pitch < P , then it results in Short-pitch
Short winding

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Advantages of short-pitch or Fractional

Fractional-pitch or Chorded winding:
 The ends of the coils are shorter, which means less copper loss due to less total length.
 The end coils can be formed more compactly. The end belts will need less winding space
resulting in a shorter unit.
 Improved emf wave form due to reduction of harmonics.
 Fractional number of slots per pole in a turn reduces the tooth/teeth ripples.
 Mechanical strength of the coil is increased.
 Iron losses are reduced, efficiency will increase
increase.
 Self inductance of coil is reduced. Therefore inductive reactance drop is less, Regulation is
good.
Since all ac equipments are designed to operate on a pure sine wave, the generation of
harmonics is to be avoided. This is especially so when the factor that achieves it is otherwise
desirable.
 The major disadvantage of short
short-pitch coils are, the total voltage around the coil is somewhat
reduced. Because the voltages induced in the two sides of the short
short-pitched
pitched coil are slightly out of
phase, their resultant vectorial sum is less than their arithmetic sum.
(v). Integral slot windings: (m = integer value)
To maintainn uniform magnetic reaction throughout the surface of armature, the armature
conductors should be properly distributed.
 Integral means forming a whole. If the number of slots/phase/pole (m) is a while or integer
number then that type of winding is said to be integral slot winding.
 The number of slots in an ac machine should always be integral multiples of three. However,
the number of slots per po
pole per phase may be integer or a fraction. The winding may be
single layer or double layer.

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 Assure that the full-pitch

pitch or pole-pitch
pitch of a winding is 6 slots per pole.
 If the coil-pitch
pitch is taken to be equal to pole
pole-pitch, then the upper coil--side in slot-1 should be
connected to bottom coil side in slot ‘7’(=1+6).
1800
 Since there are 6 slots per pole of 1800, the slot angular pitch =  = 6
= 300

 Upper coil-side in slot-22 must be connected to bottom coil

coil-side
side in slot-8
slot (2+6 = 8). The
winding is further completed for phase
phase-‘R’ only shown in figure.
 For a 3- machine, from the above figure the slots 7, 8, 13, 14 con
contain
tain coil sides belonging to
the same phase-‘R’.
‘R’. In general, it can be stated that for full
full-pitch
pitch integral slot winding, each
slot contains coil-sides
sides belonging to the same phase.

Fractional slot winding: (m = fractional value)

The number of slots per ph
phase
ase per pole is a fractional then it is known as “fractional-slot
“fractional
winding”. But the total number of slots must be multiples three (3). This helps to maintain
symmetrical winding.

The advantages of these windings are,

 Reduces the high-frequency
frequency harmonics iin
n the emf and mmf wave forms.
 This winding permits the use of already existing slotting nos. for the armature
laminations.
 Allows choice of coil
coil-pitch.

The restrictions of this winding are,

 It can be used only with double
double-layer windings.
 The number of parallel circuits is limited .
Let ‘S’ be the total number of slots and ‘P’ be the number of poles. Then slot
per pole per phase, for a 3- winding are ‘(S/3)/P’. If ‘K’ is highest common factor between S/3 and
‘P’ thee slots / pole/ phase can be,
S/3 K * SK SK
=
P K * PK P K

S/3
Where, SK = K
P
PK = K

The ratio of Sk / Pk is called the ‘characteristic ratio’ of the fractional slot winding.

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1.9. Difference between Fractional and Integral Slot winding

winding:

S. No INTEGRAL SLOT WINDING FRACTIONAL SLOT WINDING

Number of Slots/Phase/Pole (m) should Number of Slots/Phase/Pole (m) should be an

1.
whole / integral number. fractional number.
Number of slots is integral multiples of
2. Number of slots is integral multiples of three.
three.
Applicable for both single and double Practicable only with double layer
3.
layer winding. arrangement.
Integral slot winding may not appear to be
4. It may appear to be little complicated.
complicated.

5. Manufacturing in little complicated. Easier to manufacture and the cost is low.

Obtained lesser power density compared

6. It is obtained higher power density.
to fractional slot winding.

7. Longer non-over-lapping
lapping emf turns. Shorter non over-lapping
lapping emf turns.

1.10. Pitch factor or Chording

ing factor
factor: (KP or KC)
Pitch factor is defined as the ratio of “emf with short
short-pitch
pitch coil to the emf with full-pitch
full
coil”.
 Already we know that, pole
pole-pitch
pitch is the distance between the centre lines of adjacent ‘N’ and
‘S’ pole measured along the circumference of armature
surface. When two sides of a coil are full pole pitch
apart, it is called “full-pitched
pitched coil”. The emf in coil
side of a full-pitched
pitched coil is in phase.
 In practice, coil pitch is less than pole pitch and hence
emf’s in the coil sides
des have a phase difference. The
resultant emf in the coil will be less than that of full
full-
pitched coil. Therefore, for full
full-pitch coil,
KP = 1 while for short-pitch
pitch coil, KP<1.
Let us consider the coil sides are housed in slots ‘1’ and ‘7’ gives the full-pitched coil. If the
coil-sides
sides are placed in slots ‘1’ and ‘6’ gives short/fractional pit
pitched
ched winding because coil span less
than pole-pitch (<1800 ) or equal to 5/6th pole-pitch.
1800
It falls short by pole
pole-pitch or by = 300 (or) 5/6 × one pole pitch
pit
6
 5/6 × 1800 = 1500 (coil span)

Short pitch angle = Pole pitch – coil span = 1800 - 1500 = 300

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The advantages and disadvantages are already discussed in previous section.

Therefore,
Vector sum of the induced emfs per coil
KP or KC =
arithmatic sum of the induced emfs per coil

 It is always less than unity.

Let ‘Es’ be the induced emf in each side of the coil. If the coil were full
full-pitched i.e., its two
1800 ) apart.
coil sides were one-pole pitch (180

Then total induced emf of arithmetic sum is 2Es ………………………. (1)

If it is short pitched by 300 (∝), their resultant ‘Er’ which is the vector sum of two
voltages with 300 electrical (ES)

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From the Vector diagram,

∠OQR = 1800 - 300
1
∠OQS = [∠OQR]
2
1
= (1800 - 300 ) = 750 .
2
or
∠OQS = 900 - 150 = 750

Er = OR = OS + SR
300 300
= OQ cos + QR cos
2 2
= Es cos 150 + Es cos 150

Er = 2Es cos 150 …………………..(2)

emf with short-pitched coil

 KP or KC =
emf with full-pitched coil
2Es cos 150
=
2Es

KP = cos 150 = 0.966

In general, if the coil span falls short of full pitch by angle ‘α’ i.e., short
short-pitch
pitch angle is denoted
‘α’ (electrical).

α
∴ KP or KC = cos
2

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1.11. Distribution / Breadth / Belt / Spread factor

factor: (Kd)
Distribution factor is defined as the “ratio of emf with distributed winding to the emf with
concentrated winding” denoted by ‘Kd’.
R, Y, B, R1, Y1, B1 are three
three-phase windings displaced by 1200 electrical.
From the diagram we can say that it is having 36 slots,
3- winding with distributed
ibuted winding because coils
are not concentrated or bunched in one slot, but are
distributed in a no. of slots to form a polar groups
under each pole.

Obviously it is having 3 slots/pole/phase because it is

3- winding, single layer winding, 4-pole
4 machine.
Now, these three coils which regress one polar group
are not bunched in one slot but in three different slots.
36
9 = no. of slots per pole =9
4

1800
Angular
Angular displacement between any two adjacent slots
slots= = 200
9

If the 3-coils
coils are bunched in one slot (concentrated winding), then the total induced emf
induced in the three coil sides of the coil is arithmetic sum of three emf’s. Let ‘ES’ be magnitude of
each coil side.
i.e., 3ES …………………….. (1)
For distributed winding the three coils are displaced
200 in three different slots. Then the vector sum is,
OC = Er = OE cos 200 + ED + DC cos 200
= Es cos 200 + Es + Es cos 200
= 2Es cos 200 + Es
= 2Es 0.9397 + Es
Er = 2.88Es ………………… (2)

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(2) emf with distributed winding

∴ Kd = =
(1) emf with concentrated winding

2.88 Es
=
3Es
Kd = 0.96 ≤1
General case:
Let ‘β’’ be angular displacement between the slots.
Its value,
1800 1800
β= =
no. of slots / pole n
m = no. of slots/pole/phase.
m = spread angle.
Then the resultant emf in one polar group is
‘mES’
(i.e., m × AE)
ES = voltage induced in one coil side.

The method for finding the vector sum of ‘m’ voltages each of value ‘Es’ and having mutual
phase difference of ‘’.
’. (If m is large, then the curve ABCDE will become part of a circle of radius –
r)
β
∴ AB = ES = 2r sin
2
β
Arithmetic sum = mES = m × 2r sin …………………………
………………………….(1)
2
mβ
∴ Vector sum = AE = Er = 2r sin ………………………
………………………..(2)
2

Vector sum of emfs in a coil

∴ Kd =
arithmatic sum of emfs in a coil
mβ
(2) 2r sin 2
= = β
(1) m × 2r sin
2

mβ
sin 2
∴ Kd = β
m sin 2

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1.12. Induced emf equation of a 33-Alternator:

Let,
 = flux per pole (wb)
N = rotor speed (rpm)
F = frequency of induced emf (Hz)
P = no. of poles
Z = no. of conductors/coil sides in series / phase
= 2T
T = no. of turns [one turn = 2coil sides or conductors]

mβ
sin 2
Kd =Distribution factor=
= β
m sin 2
α
KP = Pitch factor = cos 2

Kf = form factor = 1.11 for sinusoidal

60
For one revolution of the rotor it takes a time of N
sec

Each stator
or conductor cut by flux of ‘‘’.
∴ Change in flux / pole = dd = p
60
Change in time = dt = N

d P NP
NP
∴ = = = Average induced emf / conductor …………………… (1)
dt 60 60
N
Now,
PN 120 f
we know that, f = N= ……………………………… (2)
120 P
(2) in (1) as
NP
Avg. emf per conductor =
60
P 120 f
= .
60 P
= 2f (volts)
If there are ‘z’ conductors in series / phase,
Then average induced emf/conductor = 22fz = 2f(2T) = 4fT
We know,
rms
Form factor = Kf = = 1.11
avg
Then,
RMS value of emf/ph = 1.11 × avg.

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AC Machines Synchronous Generators

= 1.11 × 44fT
Eg(rms) = 4.44
4.44fT volts.

But the above equation is not being so, the actual available voltage is reduced in the ratio of
two factors i.e., KP and Kd.

∴ Actual available voltage/ph = 4.44 Kp Kd  f T (volts)

If alternator is star connected, then emf is √3 times of phase emf.

Winding factor (Kw):-

It is the product of the distribution and pitch factors.
i.e., Kw = KP × Kd
It is denoted by ‘Kw’

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1.13. Harmonics:
The distortion in an output or input Voltage or Current
urrent wave form is called known as
harmonics.
 The ripples due to slotting of armature are always opposite to slots and a tooth’s which are
causing them. Thus the harmonic
harmonics which is generated in the emff is due tom slotting called slot
harmonics.

 The air-gap
gap offers maximum reluctance to the flux path, if made to vary sinusoidal around the
machine the field form and would be sinusoidal
 Thus in general it can be seen that ideal sinusoidal field form is very difficult to obtain whether
the machine is salient pole type or cylindrical type rotor construction.

1.14. Harmonics in generated emf wave form

form:
The major sources of harmonics in an alternator in the output voltage wave form are as
follows:
i. The non-sinusoidal
sinusoidal wave form of the field flux.
ii. Variation in reluctance of the air
air-gap
gap due to the slotting of the stator core.

These are explained by the methodology of “wave

“
shaping” as follows.
The flux distribution curve in the air-gap of
an alternator shown in figure is not usually as
rectangular as in a dc machine, but it is not a
perfectly sinusoidal unless the machine has a salient
pole rotor with specially shaped pole shoes, or a
cylindrical rotor with sinusoidal distributed
distrib field
winding.
 The induced emf wave per conductor is
similar to flux wave since induced emf per
conductor is directly proportional to “flux density at
constant speed”.

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i.e., e = B l v volts
Where, l = length of conductor is constant and
v = velocity or speed is constant
 If the winding is full-pitched
pitched one, the emf’s,
s, induced in two coil sides of each coil will
wil be in
phase and of the same magnitude because at any instant both the sides of the coil lie under
corresponding positions of opposite poles. Hence for full
full-pitched
pitched winding, the induced emf wave
in early coil will have same shape as the emf induced in eac
each coil side.
 If concentrated winding is employed, the resulting emf wave will be of the same shape as the
flux density curve (B) as above which is “flat
“flat-topped”.
 Let us consider, a phase bel
belt consisting of 3-coils of a 3- alternator having 3 slots per pole per
phase is shown in figure.
 The shape of emf wave for each of the 3-full-pitch
pitch coils giving one phase of the winding will be
of the shape, as shown in figure by curves I, II and III respectively below.
 The slot displacement angle ‘‘’ between
the adjacent slots is 20° electrical apart.

1800 1800
i.e., β = = = 200
n 9

The resultant emf per phase would be the

phasor sum of the induced emf’s in the three
coils which may be obtained by adding the
ordinates of three emf’s waves.

 The resultant emf

mf per phase (Ep) wave is
not flat topped but is almost sine wave.
 Hence the distributed winding is

employed to give emf wave nearly sinusoidal. By using

distributed winding, breadth factor for harmonics is very
much less than for fundamental.
amental. So that harmonics are
reduced in the resultant emf wave.
 For a fractional pitch winding,
winding the emf in each
coil may be obtained first by adding the emf’s of each
coil side graphically and then resultant emf per phase
may be obtained by adding the coil emf’s.

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 The resultant emf per phase for a fractional or short-pitch

pitch winding will be more nearly sinusoidal
than for full-pitch winding.

1.14.1. Slot Harmonics:

As the armature or stator of an alternator is slotted, some harmonics are induced into the emf
which is called slot harmonics. The presence of slot in the stator makes the air gap reluctance at the
surface of the stator non uniform. Since in case of alternators the poles are moving or there is a
relative motion between the stator and rotor, the slots and the teeth alternately occupy any point in the
air gap. Due to this the reluctance or the air gap will be continuously varying. Due to this variation of
reluctance ripples will be formed in the air gap between the rotor and stator slots and teeth. This
ripple formed in the air gap will induce ripple emf called slot harmonics.
Another kind of harmonic generated in machines called space harmonic. The space
harmonics, are a result of non-sinusoidal
sinusoidal distribution of the coils in the machine and slotting. In
practical machine air-gap
gap mmf and flux are non sinusoidally distributed in space.

1.15. Suppression of harmonics in generated emf

emf:
In general for synchronous
onous generators
generators, non-sinusoidal
sinusoidal field flux wave form is the major cause
of harmonics in the emf waveform
waveform. If field flux waveform is a sinusoidal then there should be no
harmonics in the synchronous generator emf waveform.
 In case of salient pole machines
chines, if the air-gap is made to vary sinusoidal around the machine, the
field produced is sinusoidal. An approximate of sinusoidal field form is obtained by skewing the
pole faces.

Skew Pole Face

Pole (Normal) Skewed Face Pole

 In cylindrical rotor machines

machines, the length of air-gap
gap is uniform throughout, therefore the
sinusoidal field wave form is obtained, and the mmf of the field winding is made to vary as
nearly sinusoidal
usoidal as possible.

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 Now if we consider that an amount of saturation in iron parts, the sinusoidal field form cannot be
obtained in salient pole machines even if the air
air-gap length is varied sinusoidal.
sinusoidal
 In cylindrical rotor machines even if the mmf distri
distribution in air-gap
gap is made sinusoidal because
air-gap
gap around the outer periphery should be uniform. An ideal sinusoidal wave form is very
difficult to achieve, and therefore harmonics developed in induced emf.
 The harmonics can be easily eliminated from the alternator generated induced emf wave form by
properly
roperly designing the windings. The various methods for elimination of harmonics from the
output voltage are,
1) Distributing the armature winding properly.
2) Short-chording or fractionally pitched the armature w
winding
nding by making the coil-span
coil or
coil-pitch
pitch less than a full pole
pole-pitch. (i.e., short-pitch winding)
3) Skewing the pole faces usually through one slot-pitch.
4) In case of salient pole, if we maintain small air-gap
gap at the pole centre and large air-gap
towards the pole ends tends to make the field flux sinusoidal as shown in above figure.
5) Skewing the armature slots, only tooth or slot harmonics can be eliminated.
6) Fractional slot winding
winding: Higher order harmonics can be drastically reduced by using
fractional slot winding. The flux pulsations can be reduced by having number of slots per
pole arc as an integer plus 1/2
1/2.
7) Larger air-gap
gap length causes the increases in reluctance which will reduce the harmonics.
8) By making the alternator connections i.e., star or delta co
connections
nnections of alternators suppress
triplen harmonics (multiples of three) from appearing across lines.

1.16. Rating of Alternator’s:

All power equipments or apparatus whether it is steam engine or gas engine or electric
machine have power ratings defined as the power which can be safely and efficiently delivered by a
machine under some specificc conditions or the rating of AC machinery such as alternators,
transformers and cables are determined by their heating and hence by losses them.
 Electrical apparatus or machine is usually rated at the load, which it can carry without over
over-
heating and damage to insulation i.e., rating of electric machine is governed by the temperature
rise caused by the internal losses of the machine. The copper loss in the armature (I2R) depends
upon the strength of the armature current and core loss on voltage and these losses are
independent of power factor.
 The output in KW is proportional to power factor for the alternator of a given KVA. For
example output of 1000 KVA alternator w
will
ill be of full load is 200, 500, 800 and 1000 KW at
power factor of 0.2, 0.5,0.8 and unity respectively, but copper losses in armature will remain
same regardless of power factor.

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 The prime mover which drives the alternator, have a rating independent of po
power factor and it
depends on kW output.
 Finally we can say that the alternators are rated in kVA or kW at specified power factor.
 Other name plate details include:
1. Voltage 2. Current
3. Frequency 4. Speed
5. Number of Poles 6. Field current & Voltage
7. Maximum Temperature rise 8. Number of Phases
1.17. Leakage Reactance or armature leakage reactance (XL):
Leakage reactance is an inductive reactance formed due to air
air-gap
gap in between armature
“conductor’s and field poles”
 In an a.c. machine, any
ny flux set up by the
load current which does not contribute to
the useful flux or main flux of the machine
is a leakage flux.
 This leakage fluxes may be classified as
1. Slot leakage
2. Tooth head leakage
3. Coil-end
end or overhang leakage
When a current flow through
hrough the armature
conductors or stator conductors, the flux is set up a
portion of this flux does not cross the air
air-gap, but
completes its path in stator as shown in figure.
Such a flux is known as “leakage
leakage flux”.

 This effect gives the armature a reactance which is numerically equal to 2Π f L. L, in henries, is
the leakage inductance of winding
 This leakage flux is proportional to stator or armature current, since the magnetic path it covers is
not normally saturated. It also depends on the phase angle between the stator current and voltage
applied across the stator.
π
 The leakage flux sets up an emf of self inductance leading the load curren
current ‘I’ by 2
and

proportional to load current ‘I’ in magnitude. Hence armature winding is assumed to possess
leakage reactance (XL) such that the voltage drop due to it, I XL is equal to an emf set by leakage
flux. A part of the generated emf is used up to overcome this leakage reactance drop in addition to
armature drop.
i.e., Generated emf = phasor sum of terminal voltage, armature resistance drop.

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1.18. Armature Reaction:

The action of armature flux on main flux is called known as “Armature Reaction”.
 In dc machine, the armature mmf (ampere
(ampere-turns)
turns) acts on the magnetic circuit of the machine in
such a way as to distort the air
air-gap
gap flux and to charge its magnitude. For a given armature
current, the direction and magnitude of armature reaction depends on tthe
he ‘position of brushes’.
 In an alternator, somewhat similar conditions exist. For a given armature current, the magnitude
and direction of the armature reaction cannot depends on the brush position as in case of dc
machine, but depends on phase displaceme
displacement
nt of stator current ‘I’ with respect to emf ‘E’ induced
in the stator winding by the field winding flux.
i.e., for,
DC Machine Armature Reaction depends on position of brushes.
Alternator Armature Reaction depends on pha
phase
se angle displacement of load current ‘I’ and
induced emf ‘E’.
ernator the phase displacement or phase angle -  between current ‘I’ and emf ‘E’
In an alternator ‘ can
be within the limits of,
π π
≤≤
2 2
We will consider three cases,
i.e.,
i. When  = 0 i.e., when the power factor of load is unity.
π
ii. When  = +2 i.e., when the power factor is ‘zero’ and lagging.
π
iii. When  = -2 i.e., when the power factor of load is ‘zero’ and leading.

1.19.1. At unity power factor:

The distribution of the stator currents and fluxes of an alternator with zero phase displacement
between current ‘I’ and emf ‘E’ (i.e., when pf is unity) Assuming the rotation of the poles tto be
clockwise is shown in above figure.
The crosses (+) and dots (.) appeasing in the conductor cross sections indicate the
instantaneous direction of the emf’s induced and currents flowing.
 Cross indicating the inward direction and dot indicating the outward direction. The maximum of
the fundamental wave of the field will be opposite to the pole centers and at the same points the
conductors have their maximum induced emf.
 With =0 the conductors carrying the maximum current will also be at the same points, as shown
in the figure. The armature reaction mmf is perpendicular tto
o the main field mmf, as in case of a
dc machine with brushes on the neutral axis.

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 This causes the distortion of the flux due to main field and asymmetrical distribution of the flux
density under the pole shoe. The flux density under the trailing pole tips increases somewhat,
while under the leading pole lips it decreases.
 The axis of the resultant field is displaced under the action of armature reaction mmf in a
direction opposite to that of rotation of the rotor.
Hence armature reaction at unity power factor has got distorting effect.
effect

1.19.2. At lagging zero power factor

factor:

π
The distribution of currents and fluxes with phase angle  = +2 radians i.e., for a purely
pure

inductive load is shown above.. The current maximum will be shifted in space bby an angle 900 from
the emf maximum, which coincides with the centre of the poles. This shift will be opposite to
direction of rotation, because the fundamental armature reaction wave rotates in step with the field
poles.

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π
While when  = +2, current wave lags behind the emf wave by an angle 900. The field created by the

armature reaction mmf will be in opposite to main field flux and will,
Therefore, have a wholly de-magnetizing effect.

1.19.3. At leading zero power factor

factor:
π
The distribution of currents and fluxes with phase angle -2 i.e., for a purely capacitive load is

shown below.
The maximum current will be shifted to the right from the maximum emf, which remains as before
under the pole centre’s and the armature reaction will,
Therefore ha
have a wholly magnetizing effect on the main field.

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  of load, the armature reaction has cross-magnetizi

For any power factor cos magnetizing component
proportional I cos and demagnetizing component proportional to I sin,
sin and is taken +ve for
lagging power and –vee for leading power factor.
 The phasor sum of the fundamental armature winding and field winding mmf waves constitutes,
in a synchronous machine, the mmf creating the resultant magnetic flux.

1.20. Nature of Armature Reaction:

The nature of the armature reaction is dependent on the power factor at which the machine is
operating and upon the operating mode of synchronous machine. For simplicity of explanation, it will
be assumed that the armature resistance (Ra) and leakage reactance (XL) are negligible so
s that,
Vt = Eg
The below phasor diagrams, with component fluxes indicated therein for an alternator for
zero power factor lagging, zero power factor leading, unity power factor. The following observations
are immediately made from the phasor diagrams.

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Where, ar = armature flux component

f = field flux component
r = resultant flux component
 Armature reaction is demagnetizing (ar opposes f) when a alternator supplies zero power factor
lagging current.
 Armature reaction is magnetizing (ar aids f) when a alternator supplies zero power factor
leading current.
 Armature reaction is mostly cross-magnetizing (i.e., at 900 to f) though it has a small
demagnetizing component shown when an alternator supplies a unity power factor current.
From the above discussion, we conclude that for an alternator,
 It supplies a lagging power factor current; the armature reaction has both demagnetizing and
cross-magnetizing components.
 It supplies leading power factor current, the armature reaction has both magnetizing and cross-
magnetizing components.
Power Factor Armature Reaction
Unity Purely Cross Magnetization or Distortion
Zero Power Factor (ZPF) Lagging Purely Demagnetization
Zero Power Factor (ZPF) Leading Purely Magnetization
0.8, Lagging Partly demagnetization & Partly Cross Magnetization
0.8, Leading Partly Magnetization & Partly Cross Magnetization

1.21. SYNCHRONOUS IMPEDANCE

IMPEDANCE:
1.21.1. Synchronous Reactance:: (XS) [XS = XL + Xa]
The armature reactance is the reactance which is due to “armature reaction”.

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 The emf set up due to armature reaction mmf is always quadrature with load current ‘IL’ and is
proportional to it. Thus it is equivalent to an emf induced in an inductive coil and the effect of
armature reaction can, therefore, be considered equivalent to reactance drop ‘IXa’. Where Xa
which takes care of the armature reaction effect.
 The armature winding possess a certain leaka
leakage reactance (XL) already discussed. The sum of
‘XL’ and ‘Xa’ is called the synchronous reactance.
XS = XL + Xa

1.21.2. Effective Resistance: (Re)

The effective resistance of the armature winding is somewhat greater than the conductor
resistance called the dc resistance. This is due to additional loss, over the purely I2R loss, inside and
sometimes outside the conductor due to alternating current (AC). The main sources of this additional
loss are,
i. Eddy current in the outer periphery.
ii. Magnetic hysteresis in the surrounding material.
iii. Eddy currents or unequal current distribution in the conductor itself.
 In many cases it is sufficiently accurate to measure armature resistance by dc called the effective
resistance (Re) which is large enou
enough
gh to take care of these additional losses. ‘Re’ can vary widely
from 1.25 to 1.75 or more times to dc resistance depending upon design.

1.21.3. Synchronous impedance

impedance: (ZS)
When the synchronous reactance (XS) is combined with the armature resistance (Re), then the
quantity obtained is called the “Synchronous impedance” (ZS).

i.e., ZS = Re + jXS

Armature winding effective resistance (Re) in alternators usually very small in comparison
comp to
synchronous reactance (XS) and therefore ‘ZS’ may be assumed to XS.

1.22. Alternator ON-LOAD:

If the excitation of an alternator adjusted to give normal voltage at no
no-load and then a load is
applied, the terminal voltage of an alternator changes, even though the speed is kept constant. The
voltage usually falls, but
ut in certain circumstances it may rise even.
The change in terminal voltage of an alternator with the change in load supplied by it is due to
the following reasons.
i. Voltage drop account of armature effective resistance (Re).

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ii. Voltage drop on account of lea

leakage reactance (XL).
iii. Voltage drop on account of armature reaction.

D
E0

Ia Xa
From the Phasor diagram of
lagging power factor,

Ia XS
Ia is taken as reference vector

Ia Xl
OD2 = OB2 + BD2

V E02 = OD2 = (OA + AB)2 + (BC + CD)2

Ia Re C

V sin 
E0 = (V cos  + Ia Re )2 +(V sin  + Ia Xs )2

O Ia A B
V cos Ia Re

Lagging Power Factor

Ia
D
From the Phasor diagram of leading power
factor,
E0 C
V is taken as reference vector E
OC2 = OD2 + DC2
E02 = OC2 = (OE + ED)2 + (BD - BC)2
B

2 V
E0 = (V cos  + Ia Re )2 + V sin  - Ia Xs
O A
Leading Power Factor

D
E0 From the Phasor diagram of unity
Ia Xa

power factor,
OD2 = OC2 + CD2
Ia XS

E02 = OD2 = (OB + BC)2 + (CD)2

Ia Xl

Ia V Ia Re
O E0 = ( V +Ia Re )2 +(Ia Xs )2
A B C
Unity Power Factor

Saravanan T Y M. Tech., (Ph.D.) NEC∷GUDUR

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1.23. Equivalent Circuit:

When the alternator is operating at no
no-load (i.e., rotor is rotating and energized and stator is
open-circuited)
circuited) its circuit diagram is shown below.

Each phase generates an emf E0 per phase as shown. The equivalent circuit of an alternator for
one phase is shown.

At no-load,
load, the terminal voltage ‘V’ per phase is equal to excitation (or) generated emf E0 per phase
i.e., V = E0
1.24. Load characteristics:
Already we know that if the exciting current and speed remain constant, the terminal voltage
of an alternator changes with the change in the load (or) armature current.
The relation-ship
ship between the terminal voltage (V) and load current (I) of an alternat
alternator is known as
its “Load characteristics.”
The curves showing the variation of terminal voltage ‘V’ with load current ‘I’ for constant
excitation for different power factor loads are given. The curves are plotted in terms of percentage
values general operating
ting conditions can be marked better in this way.

Saravanan T Y M. Tech., (Ph.D.) NEC∷GUDUR

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0.8 Leading PF

100

(Percent Terminal Voltage) Unity PF

0.8 Lagging PF
Vt (Volts)

0 220
Isc (Amps)
(Percent Load Current)

 Normally the terminal voltage falls with increase in load current, but when the power factor is
leading one, the load characteristic may rise at first due to armature reaction effect (i.e.,
magnetization).. Each curve is nearly straight line at the beginning but trends to droop because,
with the increase in load current, the angle of lag between current and emf, owing to the original
field increases.
 The highest current is obtained when the alternator terminals are short
short-circuited,
circuited, the value being
given as
E0
Isc = (A)
Zs
where, E0 is non-load
load terminal voltage and Zs is the synchronous impedance.

1.25. Experimental determination of Zs:

1.25.1. Open circuit test:
 The connection for open circuit test is shown in the above circuit diagram. The armature
winding i.e., load terminals are opened and machine should be run at rated or synchronous
speed. The field winding is connected to dc source in series with a field rheostat and an
ammeter.
 By adjusting the field rheostat to ma
maximum
ximum to minimum the field current If is taken from
ammeter in steps minimum to maximum respectively. Then Eg0 is also minimum to maximum
taken from voltmeter in steps up to rated value.

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 Draw the open circuit characteristic curve ((OCC curve) from the above
ove readings. i.e., ‘If’ on x-
axis and Eg on y-axis.
axis. The Ego which we obtained from voltmeter is line value that should be
Ego /line
representing in a graph as phase value. i.e., [For a star Ego/ph = √3
].

1.25.2. Short circuit test:

 The connection for the short circuit test is shown in the below circuit diagram. In this test also
the machine should be maintained at constant speed by the prime mover.
 All the 3- load terminals of 3- alternator as shorted. Rheostat of sufficiently high ohmic value
is inserted
ed in the dc field circuit to keep the current in the circuit very low.
 Now the field current ‘If’ is adjusted to Isc or Irated of 3- alternator by varying the field rheostat.
From the If and Isc the SCC curve (Short Circuit Characteristic) is obtained.

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1.25.3. OC & SC Characteristic curves

curves:

The synchronous impedance ‘Zs’ can be obtained by above graphical representation of occ
and scc curve.
Open circuit induced emf
i..e., ZS =
Short circuit current

Eoc
∴ Zs =
Isc
1.26. Determination of effective armature resistance
resistance: (Re)
The effective armature resistance (Re) per phase can be measured directly by Ammeter-
Ammeter
Voltmeter (A-V method) or by using Wheatstone bridge
bridge.

 The above circuit is used to measure the effective armature resistance per pha
phase. The DC supply
is connected to the any one phase of armature winding through rheostat, ammeter in series and
voltmeters to parallel.
 Then the rheostat can be varied from maximum to minimum in steps the Va and Ia values are
Va
noted by voltmeter and ammeter respectively and taken average with gives ‘Re’. i.e. Ra = Ia
.

 The ‘Re’ value which we obtained is dc by converting it to AC value is multiplied 1.5 due to skin
effect.
i.e., RAC = 1.5 RDC

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Finally, we obtained the synchronous impedance ‘Zs’ from OC and SC test, ‘Re’ obtained by A-V
method then ‘Xs’ as,

Synchronous Reactance =XS = Z2S - R2e

1.27. Winding factor: (Harmonics Consideration)

The product of distribution factor (Kd) and the pitch factor (Kp) is referred as the winding
factor (Kw).
Kw = Kd *Kp

star-connected to eliminate 3rd and 9th harmonics (i.e. multiples of 3,

3- alternators are invariably star
called triplen) from line emf’s through 5th and 7th harmonic emf’s of reduced magnitude are present
in the lines.
Already we know the emf equation of 3- alternator,
E
i.e. ph
= 4.44 Kp Kd ∅ f T volts.

From the above equation, the fundamental emf per phase is,
Ep1 = 4.44 * Kw1 * 1 * (1f) * T ………………….. (1)
For 3rd harmonic, emf per phase is
Ep3 = 4.44 * Kw3 * 3 * (3f) * T ………………….. (2)
In general, for hth harmonic, emf per phase is
Eph = 4.44 * Kwh * h * (hf) * T ………………….. (3
3)
Here subscripts 1, 3 and h denotes fundamental, third and hth harmonics respectively.
From Eph and Ep1 expressions, the hth harmonic and fundamental rms phase emf’s are related

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(3) Eph Kwh h h

= = * …………………..(3a)
(1) Ep1 Kw1 1
Also,
1= total value of fundamental flux per pole
= (Avg. Flux density) . (Area under pole)
2 πDL
= B1 *
π P
2DL
= .B1 ………………
………………..(4)
P

Where,
B1 = peak value of fundamental component of flux density.
D = Air-gap
gap diameter of armature.
L = Core Length of armature.

Similarly, 3 from equ, (4) as

2DL
3 = B
3P 3
In general,
2DL
h = B
hP h

From the above,

h 1 Bh Bh hh
= .  =
1 h B1 B1 1

From equation – 3a
Eph Kwh hh
 = .
Ep1 Kw1 1
Eph Kwh 1 Bh
= .h. .
Ep1 Kw1 h B1

Eph Kwh Bh
= .
Ep1 Kw1 B1

The rms phase emf is,

Eph =[Ep1 2 +Ep3 2 + ---+Eph 2 ]1/2

Saravanan T Y M. Tech., (Ph.D.) NEC∷GUDUR

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1.28. Fictitious Poles:

In case of a magnets dipole it is not possible to identify any two particular points as poles of
the magnet. So, every magnetic dipole is supposed to be made up of two imaginary poles called
fictitious poles of equal strength but opposite polarity.
The fictitious poles can be obtained by extending the magnetic li
lines
nes of forces inside the magnet.
Thus, the actual distance between the fictitious poles is less than the distance between the ends of the
magnet. The distance between the fictitious poles of a magnet is called the magnetic length of the
magnet. It is represented
sented by 21, where / is the distance of each pole of the magnet from its centre. So,
the actual magnetic length of a magnet is slightly less than its geometrical length. The relation
between these lengths is as follows. Magnetic length = 5/6 geometrical llength.
ength.

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Saravanan T Y M. Tech., (Ph.D.) NEC∷GUDUR

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