EARTH SCIENCE (ASE1023) – CHAPTER 1 NOTES
Topic 1: Earth’s Internal Energy and the Geosphere
1. INTRODUCTION TO EARTH SCIENCE
What is Earth Science?
Earth Science is the study of:
• Earth and its processes
• Earth’s structure
• Atmosphere
• Oceans
• Landforms
• Rocks and minerals
Main Aim of Earth Science
To understand:
• How Earth works
• Earth’s present features
• Earth’s past evolution
• How this knowledge benefits humankind
Careers in Earth Science
Career Role
Geologist Studies rocks, minerals and Earth’s structure
Hydrologist Studies water resources such as rivers and groundwater
Meteorologist Studies weather and climate
Oceanographer Studies oceans and marine environments
Environmental Scientist Protects natural resources and solves environmental problems
Seismologist Studies earthquakes and Earth’s internal movements
Paleontologist Studies fossils and ancient life
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Career Role
Volcanologist Studies volcanoes and volcanic hazards
Geophysicist Studies Earth’s physical properties using physics and mathematics
Remote Sensing Specialist Uses satellite data to study Earth
1.1 DATING ROCKS AND EARTH’S AGE
Earth’s Formation
• Earth formed about 4.6 billion years ago.
• Earth changed from a molten ball into a living planet.
Solar Nebula Theory
Formation Process
1. A giant cloud of gas and dust called a solar nebula existed in space.
2. A nearby supernova explosion caused the nebula to collapse.
3. Gravity pulled particles together.
4. Most materials gathered at the center and formed the Sun.
5. Nuclear fusion started in the Sun.
6. Remaining particles combined to form planets.
Formation of Earth
Planetesimal Theory
• Small particles collided and stuck together.
• These particles formed planetesimals.
• Planetesimals combined into protoplanets.
• Earth formed through continuous collisions.
Sources of Heat in Early Earth
• Collision of particles
• Radioactive decay
• Gravitational compression
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Differentiation of Earth
Definition
Differentiation = separation of materials according to density.
Process
• Heavy materials like iron and nickel sank to the center.
• Lighter materials moved upward.
Result
Earth became layered into: 1. Core 2. Mantle 3. Crust
Formation of the Moon
Giant Impact Hypothesis
• A Mars-sized body called Theia collided with Earth.
• Large amounts of debris were thrown into space.
• Debris combined due to gravity.
• The Moon was formed.
Earth’s Early Atmosphere
Early Atmosphere Contents
• Water vapor
• Carbon dioxide
• Nitrogen
• Volcanic gases
Ocean Formation
• Earth cooled over time.
• Water vapor condensed.
• Oceans formed.
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Oxygenation of Earth
Cyanobacteria
• Early microorganisms performed photosynthesis.
• Oxygen was released into the atmosphere.
Great Oxygenation Event
• Oxygen levels increased.
• Aerobic organisms could survive.
• Complex life began developing.
Dating Rocks
Relative Dating
Definition
Determines whether rocks are older or younger compared to other rocks.
Principles of Relative Dating
Law of Superposition
• Oldest rock layers are at the bottom.
• Youngest rock layers are at the top.
Cross-Cutting Relationship
• Faults or intrusions are younger than the rocks they cut.
Index Fossils
• Fossils used to determine ages of rock layers.
• Organisms existed only during certain time periods.
Absolute Dating
Definition
Determines the actual numerical age of rocks.
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Method Used
• Radioactive dating
• Uses radioactive isotopes and half-life
Examples
• Uranium-Lead dating
• Carbon-14 dating
1.2 DENSITY AND LAYERING IN EARTH’S INTERIOR
Earth’s Internal Structure
Earth is divided into layers based on:
• Density
• Composition
• Physical properties
Main Layers of Earth
1. Crust
Characteristics
• Outermost layer
• Thin and solid
• Made mainly of silicate rocks
Types of Crust
Type Characteristics
Continental Crust Thicker, less dense, mainly granite
Oceanic Crust Thinner, denser, mainly basalt
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2. Mantle
Characteristics
• Thickest layer
• Semi-solid rock
• Rich in iron and magnesium
Asthenosphere
• Soft and plastic region in upper mantle
• Allows tectonic plates to move
3. Core
Composition
• Iron
• Nickel
Parts of the Core
Layer State
Outer Core Liquid
Inner Core Solid
Importance
• Movement in outer core generates Earth’s magnetic field.
1.3 PLATE TECTONIC THEORY
Definition
The lithosphere is divided into large moving plates called tectonic plates.
Causes of Plate Movement
Convection Currents
• Heat from Earth’s interior causes mantle movement.
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• Hot material rises.
• Cooler material sinks.
• This movement drives tectonic plates.
Evidence for Plate Tectonics
1. Continental Fit
• Continents fit together like puzzle pieces.
• Example: South America and Africa.
2. Fossil Evidence
• Same fossils found on different continents.
3. Rock and Mountain Evidence
• Similar rock structures found across continents.
4. Paleoclimate Evidence
• Evidence of glaciers found in now-tropical areas.
Pangaea
• Ancient supercontinent containing all continents.
• Surrounded by a giant ocean called Panthalassa.
Plate Boundaries
1. Divergent Boundary
Movement
• Plates move apart.
Features
• Mid-ocean ridges
• Rift valleys
• New crust forms
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2. Convergent Boundary
Movement
• Plates move toward each other.
Types
Oceanic – Continental Convergence
• Oceanic plate subducts beneath continental plate.
• Forms trenches and volcanoes.
Oceanic – Oceanic Convergence
• One oceanic plate subducts.
• Forms volcanic island arcs.
Continental – Continental Convergence
• Plates collide.
• Forms mountain ranges.
3. Transform Boundary
Movement
• Plates slide past each other.
Result
• Earthquakes commonly occur.
1.4 GEOLOGIC HAZARDS: EARTHQUAKES AND
VOLCANOES
Geologic Hazards
Natural events caused by Earth’s internal processes.
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Earthquakes
Definition
Sudden release of energy in Earth’s crust.
Important Terms
Term Meaning
Focus Point inside Earth where earthquake begins
Epicenter Point on Earth’s surface directly above focus
Fault Crack where movement occurs
Causes of Earthquakes
• Movement of tectonic plates
• Stress accumulation along faults
Effects of Earthquakes
• Ground shaking
• Building collapse
• Landslides
• Tsunamis
Volcanoes
Definition
Opening in Earth’s crust where magma escapes.
Formation
• Commonly forms at convergent boundaries and hotspots.
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Types of Volcanoes
Type Characteristics
Shield Volcano Broad shape, gentle eruption
Composite/Stratovolcano Steep sides, explosive eruption
Cinder Cone Small, steep volcanic cone
Volcanic Hazards
• Lava flow
• Ash fall
• Pyroclastic flow
• Landslides
• Tsunamis
1.5 MINERALS, ROCKS AND THE ROCK CYCLE
Minerals
Definition
A mineral is:
• Naturally occurring
• Inorganic
• Solid
• Has definite chemical composition
• Has crystal structure
Mineral Properties
Property Description
Color Visible appearance
Streak Powder color
Luster How light reflects
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Property Description
Hardness Resistance to scratching
Cleavage Breaks along flat surfaces
Density Mass per unit volume
Mohs Hardness Scale
Measures mineral hardness from:
• 1 (softest)
• 10 (hardest)
Example:
• Talc = 1
• Diamond = 10
Rocks
Three Main Rock Types
Rock Type Formation
Igneous Cooling and solidification of magma/lava
Sedimentary Compaction and cementation of sediments
Metamorphic Heat and pressure change existing rocks
Igneous Rocks
Intrusive Igneous Rocks
• Cool slowly inside Earth.
• Large crystals form.
Extrusive Igneous Rocks
• Cool quickly on Earth’s surface.
• Small crystals form.
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Sedimentary Rocks
Formation Steps
1. Weathering
2. Erosion
3. Deposition
4. Compaction
5. Cementation
Metamorphic Rocks
Formation
• Existing rocks change because of:
• Heat
• Pressure
• Chemical activity
Rock Cycle
Definition
Continuous process where rocks transform from one type into another.
Processes Involved
• Melting
• Cooling
• Weathering
• Erosion
• Compaction
• Cementation
• Heat and pressure
IMPORTANT KEYWORDS
Keyword Meaning
Differentiation Separation of materials according to density
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Keyword Meaning
Lithosphere Rigid outer layer of Earth
Asthenosphere Semi-fluid layer beneath lithosphere
Subduction One tectonic plate sinks beneath another
Magma Molten rock below Earth’s surface
Lava Molten rock on Earth’s surface
Fault Crack in Earth where movement occurs
Convection Current Circular mantle movement caused by heat
Tectonic Plate Large moving slab of lithosphere
QUICK SUMMARY
Main Ideas in Chapter 1
• Earth formed 4.6 billion years ago.
• Earth developed layers due to differentiation.
• Tectonic plates move because of mantle convection.
• Plate interactions cause earthquakes and volcanoes.
• Minerals and rocks form Earth’s crust.
• Rocks continuously change through the rock cycle.
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