Chapter 1 Complex Numbers
Edexcel A-level Further Mathematics. Core Pure 2. Revision and active-recall notes.
Quick reference
Idea Result
Modulus-argument form z = r(cos θ + i sin θ)
Exponential form z = re
iθ
Multiplication r 1 r 2 [cos(θ 1 + θ 2 ) + i sin(θ 1 + θ 2 )]
r1
Division [cos(θ 1 − θ 2 ) + i sin(θ 1 − θ 2 )]
r2
n
De Moivre (cos θ + i sin θ) = cos nθ + i sin nθ
Euler's relation e
iθ
= cos θ + i sin θ
nth roots of unity z = e
2πik/n
, k = 0, 1, … , n − 1
Arguments are measured in radians, principal value −π < θ ≤ π.
1.1 Modulus-argument and exponential form
Any complex number can be written as z = r(cos θ + i sin θ) where r = |z| and θ = arg z. Using Euler's relation
this becomes the exponential form
iθ
z = re
To convert from x + iy: r = √x and θ = arctan adjusted for the correct quadrant by sketching z on
y
2 2
+ y
x
an Argand diagram.
1.2 Multiplying and dividing
Multiply the moduli and add the arguments; divide the moduli and subtract the arguments.
z1 r1
i(θ 1 +θ 2 ) i(θ 1 −θ 2 )
z1 z2 = r1 r2 e , = e
z2 r2
Geometrically, multiplying by z is an enlargement by |z| and a rotation by arg z about the origin.
1.3 De Moivre's theorem
iθ n n inθ n
(re ) = r e = r (cos nθ + i sin nθ)
This holds for all integer n (and rational n when picking a specific root).
Worked example
Evaluate (1 + i) . First 1 + i = √2 e iπ/
, so
i⋅π/ i2π
(1 + i) = (√ 2) e = 1e = 1.
1.4 Using De Moivre for trig identities
Expand (cos θ + i sin θ) two ways: by De Moivre, and by the binomial theorem. Compare real and imaginary
n
parts to get multiple-angle identities.
Worked example: express cos 3θ in terms of cos θ
(cos θ + i sin θ)
3
= cos 3θ + i sin 3θ . Binomial expansion gives real part
3 2 3 2 3
cos θ − 3 cos θ sin θ = cos θ − 3 cos θ(1 − cos θ) = cos θ − 3 cos θ.
So cos 3θ = cos
3
θ − 3 cos θ .
Powers of sin and cos: if z = e then z + = 2 cos θ and z − = 2i sin θ, and z +
iθ 1
z
= 2 cos nθ. Raise
1
z
n
z
1
n
these to a power and expand to write cos θ or sin θ as a sum of multiple angles (useful before integrating).
n n
1.5 Sums of series
Geometric series with complex ratio let you sum series of sines and cosines. Write + i as a single geometric
series in e , sum it, then take real and imaginary parts.
iθ
1.6 nth roots of a complex number
To solve z n
= , write = e
i(+2πk)
and take the nth root:
+ 2πk
1/n
z = (i ), k = 0, 1, … , n − 1
n
The n roots are equally spaced by 2π
n
around a circle of radius 1/n
, forming the vertices of a regular n-gon.
Worked example: solve z 3
=
= e
i(0+2πk)
, so z = 2e 2πik/3
for k = 0, 1, 2:
2πi/3 πi/3
z = 2, 2e = −1 + i√ 3, 2e = −1 − i√ 3.
1.7 Geometry with complex numbers
Loci in the Argand plane:
|z − a| = r is a circle centre a, radius r.
|z − a| = |z − b| is the perpendicular bisector of the segment from a to b.
arg(z − a) = θ is a half-line (ray) from a at angle θ.
Common errors
Wrong quadrant for the argument. arctan(y/x) alone does not fix the quadrant. Always sketch on an
Argand diagram.
Forgetting the 2πk when finding nth roots, so only one root is found instead of n.
Dropping the modulus power in De Moivre: (re iθ
)
n
= r
n
e
inθ
, the r is raised to the power too.
Mixing radians and degrees. Work in radians throughout.
Only giving real parts when the question wants both parts of a trig identity, or vice versa.
Exam technique
Convert to exponential form early for anything involving powers or roots.
For roots, state the general form with k, then list every root for k = 0 to n − 1, and check they are equally
spaced.
For "express cos nθ" style questions, decide whether to expand (cos θ + i sin θ) (multiple angle from n
single) or use z + 1/z (single from multiple angle) before starting.
Sketch loci; a labelled diagram earns marks and prevents sign slips.
Active recall prompts
1. State De Moivre's theorem and the condition on n.
2. Write 2 cos θ and 2i sin θ in terms of z = e . iθ
3. How are the nth roots of a complex number arranged in the Argand plane?
4. Derive cos 3θ in terms of cos θ.
5. What locus does |z − a| = |z − b| describe?
6. Solve z = 1 and plot the roots.