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BUILDING SCIENCES & MECHANICS

MODULE: 01
Introduction to building science:
Importance and Scope of various fields of Civil Engineering: Surveying, Structural
Engineering, Geotechnical Engineering, Water Resources Engineering, Transportation
Engineering, Environmental Engineering, Construction Planning and Project Management.
Basic Materials of Construction: Types and Uses of Bricks, Stones, Cement, Structural Steel,
Wood, and Concrete.
Structural Elements of a Building: Concept of Foundation, Plinth, Lintel, Chejja, Masonry wall,
Column, Beam, Slab, Flooring and Staircase.
MODULE: 02
Sustainable Built Environment:
Emerging materials: Types and Uses of Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC) blocks, Bamboo,
Recycled plastics, Material selection criteria, Durability, Sustainability, Smart City concept.
Green Building: Green building materials and rating systems IGBC, LEED, GRIHA (Green
Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment) for new buildings – Purpose - Key highlights - Point
System with Differential weightage.
MODULE: 03
Basic dimensions and units, Idealizations, Force- Characteristic and Classification of force system,
Principle of transmissibility of a force, Principle of superposition and Principle of physical
independence of forces, Resolution and Composition of forces, Resultant of coplanar concurrent
force system- Parallelogram law of forces, Moment and Couple, Resultant of coplanar non-
concurrent force system- Varignon’s theorem. Numerical examples on moment, couple, resultant
of coplanar concurrent and non-concurrent force system.
MODULE: 04
Equilibrium and Support Reactions
Conditions of equilibrium, Free body diagrams, Equilibrium of coplanar concurrent force system,
Lami's theorem, Numerical examples on equilibrium of force and Lami’s theorem. Introduction to
Coplanar Non-Concurrent Force System, Types of supports in beams, types of beams, types of
loadings, Difference between statically determinate and indeterminate beams, Numerical
examples on support reactions of statically determinate beams subjected to various types of loads
(point loads, uniformly distributed loads, uniformly varying loads)

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MODULE: 05
Centroid of Plane areas:
Introduction, Locating the centroid of rectangle, triangle, circle, semicircle, and quadrant of a
circle using method of integration, centroid of composite areas and simple built-up sections:
Numerical examples.

COURSE OUTCOMES:
CO1: Explain the fundamental concepts of building science, disciplines of civil engineering,
construction materials, and structural elements of buildings.
CO2: Evaluate the sustainability aspects of the built environment through appropriate selection of
green materials and interpretation of rating systems.
CO3: Apply the principles of force systems and equilibrium to determine support reactions.
CO4: Locate the centroid of simple and composite plane areas using first principles.

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MODULE: 01
Introduction to building science:
Importance and Scope of various fields of Civil Engineering: Surveying, Structural
Engineering, Geotechnical Engineering, Water Resources Engineering, Transportation
Engineering, Environmental Engineering, Construction Planning and Project Management.
Basic Materials of Construction: Types and Uses of Bricks, Stones, Cement, Structural Steel,
Wood, and Concrete.
Structural Elements of a Building: Concept of Foundation, Plinth, Lintel, Chejja, Masonry wall,
Column, Beam, Slab, Flooring and Staircase.

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MODULE: 01

INTRODUCTION TO BUILDING SCIENCE

What is Engineering?
Engineering is the application of science and mathematics to design, develop, and improve
structures, machines, systems, and processes. It helps to solve real-world problems and create new
technologies across various industries.
Civil Engineering
Civil Engineering is one of the oldest and most fundamental branches of engineering. It focuses
on the design, construction, and maintenance of infrastructure like buildings, bridges, roads, dams,
airports, and water systems. Civil engineers use knowledge from other engineering fields to create
safe and efficient structures that meet human needs.
SCOPES OF DIFFERENT FIELDS OF CIVIL ENGINEERING:
a) Surveying
b) Structural Engineering
c) Geotechnical Engineering
d) Water Resources Engineering.
e) Transportation Engineering
f) Environmental Engineering
g) Construction planning & Project management.

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Surveying: Surveying is a science and art of determining the relative positions of points on, above
or beneath the surface of the earth by means of measurement of distance, direction, and elevation
either directly or indirectly.
It is a process of determining the positions of points in a horizontal plane.
Surveying includes levelling, in which it is possible to find the elevations or levels or height of the
points with respect to a given or assumed datum.
Levelling is a process of determining the positions of points in a vertical plane.
The scope of surveying and levelling are:
✓ To prepare the plan or map. The results of the surveys when plotted and drawn on paper will
constitute a plan. The scale of plan is large whereas the scale of map is small, as map of
Karnataka, India.
✓ To determine the dimensions and contours of any part of the earth's surface.
✓ For preparing the contour map to determine the best possible route and amount of earthwork
required.
✓ To establish boundaries of land to avoid disputes.
✓ To measure the area and volume of land.
✓ To select suitable site for an engineering project.
✓ For preparing the engineering map showing engineering details like highways, railways,
canals, dams, reservoirs, etc.
✓ To provide modern method of surveying for building and construction, transportation.
communication, mapping and decide the boundary for land ownership.
✓ To gather information about the physical earth, environment, ground systems, position of
points in 3D space.

Structural Engineering: Structural Engineering is a branch of Civil Engineering that focuses on

the analysis, design, and construction of structures that can safely withstand loads and
environmental forces. It ensures that buildings, bridges, towers, dams, and other infrastructure
remain stable, durable, and efficient throughout their lifespan.
The scope of structural engineering is:
✓ Structural engineering focuses on conceptualizing, designing, and constructing safe and
efficient structures.
✓ Structural engineering focuses on evaluating loads, stresses, and forces to ensure stability and
safety.

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✓ The structural analysis and structural design are the components of structural engineering.
✓ To Repair, rehabilitation and retrofitting old and deteriorated structures to extend their
lifespan.
✓ Structural engineer is responsible for the creation of structural systems that align with the
functional, aesthetic, and safety requirements of the client and architect.
✓ Structural engineer ensures the safety and serviceability of a structure throughout its service
life
✓ A structural engineer must analyze and estimate seismic loads, wind loads, and other loads,
ensuring the structure's stability, strength, and serviceability under all loading conditions.
✓ A structural engineer analyses, designs, and researches to develop better construction methods
and improve future buildings.

Geotechnical Engineering: Geotechnical Engineering is a branch of Civil Engineering that

focuses on the study of engineering properties of soil, behavior, and their use in construction. It
applies soil mechanics and foundation engineering principles to design safe and stable structures.
The scope of geotechnical engineering is:
✓ It refers in total all the engineering problems involving soil as foundation material and
construction material.
✓ It is concerned with the properties of earth materials.
✓ To investigate the soil and bedrock below the structure and study the soil-structure interaction.
✓ To select the type of foundation for a particular structure.
✓ To design foundation for buildings, dams, retaining walls, bridge, road pavement, railway
line, harbours, offshore structure, etc.
✓ To design foundation for underground structure like tunnels, conduits, power houses etc.
✓ To study the effect of soil as a medium for blasts during mining, earthquake, landslides, and
nuclear explosions.
✓ For ground improvement by using latest techniques such as geosynthetics, geotextiles, ground
compaction by blasting, grouting etc.
✓ To study about compaction of soil, permeability, seepage, consolidation, stability, drainage
and bearing capacity of soil, to determine the type of foundation for the structure.

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Water Resources Engineering: Water is a vital natural resource for a country's development.
Water resource engineering focuses on the efficient conservation and use of water and land
resources. It involves planning, designing, constructing, and managing water systems to improve
people's quality of life in a cost-effective way.
The scope of water resource engineering is:
✓ It facilitates to control, regulate, and utilize water to serve wide variety of purposes.
✓ Water resource engineering helps in flood control, drainage, sewerage, and culvert design to
prevent damage to property, public inconvenience, and loss of life.
✓ It gives scope for utilization of water in beneficial purpose by providing water supply,
irrigation, hydro-electric power development, and navigational improvement.
✓ Water quality management or pollution control, is the important phase of water resource
engineering.
✓ Preservation of natural beauty flora and fauna is the scope of water-resource engineering.
✓ To protect fish and wild life.

Transportation Engineering: Transportation means the movement of the men and goods from
one point to another. It is as old as civilization. It contributes to the economic, industrial, social,
and cultural development of the country. There are three major modes of transportation are
Landways, Airways and Waterways.
The scope of transportation engineering is:
✓ It includes design and development of basic modes of transport.
✓ It involves the planning, design, and maintenance of roads, highways, and expressways.
✓ It contributes to the economic, industrial, social, and cultural development of any country.
✓ For economic development of any region. Because every commodity whether it is food,
clothing, industrial products, water, gas, or medicine needs transport system for its
distribution.
✓ Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) - using smart technology for traffic management and
safety.
✓ To promote the public transport and mass transport.
✓ Provide co-ordination amongst various modes of transportation, which improve service level
and quality.

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Environmental Engineering: Environmental Engineering is a multi-disciplinary science

involving the application of engineering principles, the protection and enhancement of the quality
of environment and to the enhancement and protection of public health and welfare.
The scope of environmental engineering is:
✓ The importance of protection and conservation of our environment.
✓ The need to restrain human activities, which lead to indiscriminate release of pollutants into
the environment.
✓ The provision of safe, potable, and proper public water supply with water treatment facility.
✓ Solution of problems of environmental sanitation with waste water treatment.
✓ The proper disposal of or recycle of waste water, and solid wastes.
✓ Adequate drainage of urban, rural, and recreational areas.
✓ Control of water, soil and atmospheric pollution, and the social and environmental impact of
these solutions.
✓ Engineering problems in field of public health, such as control of water borne diseases.
✓ Elimination of industrial health hazards.
✓ The study of environmental impact assessment and mitigation measures.
✓ Control Air pollution.
✓ Control Noise pollution.

Construction planning & Project management: Construction Planning and Project

Management play a crucial role in the successful execution of civil engineering projects. They
ensure that projects are completed on time, within budget, and with optimal resource utilization
while maintaining quality and safety standards.
The scope of construction planning & Project management is:
✓ To developing timelines, work breakdown structures, and resource allocation strategies.
✓ To manage materials, labour, and equipment for optimal resource utilization.
✓ To identify, assess, and mitigate project risks to avoid delays and budget overruns.
✓ To ensure quality control and implement safety measures on construction sites.
✓ To handle contracts, agreements, and coordination among stakeholders.
✓ To integrate sustainable construction practices and modern technologies like BIM (Building
information modelling).

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BASIC MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

Types and Uses of Bricks, Stones, Cement, Structural steel, Wood, and concrete.
BRICK:
A brick is rectangular hard construction material used to build walls and other elements in masonry
construction. The bricks are obtained by moulding clay in rectangular blocks of uniform size and
then by drying and burning these blocks.
Based on Size the bricks are classified as:
a) Modular
b) Non-Modular
The standard modular size of common bricks
Length (mm) Width (mm) Height (mm)
190 90 90
190 90 40
The standard non-modular size of common bricks
Length (mm) Width (mm) Height (mm)
230 110 70
230 110 30

Bricks

CLASSIFICATION OF BRICKS:
The bricks are classified based on following
a) Quality
b) Raw Material

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Classification of Bricks Based on Quality:

a) First Class Bricks
• First class bricks are used for high quality works.
• These are thoroughly burnt and are of deep red, cherry, or copper colour.
• The surface should be smooth and rectangular, with parallel, sharp, and straight edges
and square corners.
• These should be free from flaws, cracks, and stones.
• These bricks have uniform texture.
• No impression should be left on the brick when a scratch is made by a finger nail.
b) Second Class Bricks
• Small cracks and distortions are permitted
• These bricks are slightly overburnt.
• The edges and corner of these bricks are slightly broken.
• The quality of these bricks is less compared to first class bricks.
c) Third class Bricks
• These bricks have very low quality compared to first- and second-class bricks.
• The colour and size of these bricks are not uniform.
• These bricks are black and darkish in colour.
• These bricks are over burned and sizes change compared to standard size
Classification of Bricks Based on raw materials:
✓ Burnt Clay Brick: It is obtained by pressing the clay in moulds and fried and dried in kilns. It
is the most used bricks. It requires plastering when used in construction works

Burnt clay brick

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✓ Fly ash clay Brick: It is manufactured when fly ash and clay are moulded in 1000 degree
Celsius. It usually expands when it comes in contact with moisture. It is less porous than clay
bricks. It provides a smooth surface so it does not need plastering.

Fly ash clay brick

✓ Sand-lime Brick: Sand, fly ash and lime are mixed and moulded under pressure. During wet
mixing, a chemical reaction takes place to bond the mixtures. Then they are placed in the
moulds. The colour is greyish as it offers something of an aesthetic view. It offers a smoother
finish and uniform appearance than the clay bricks. As a result, it also does not require
plastering.

Sand lime bricks

✓ Firebrick: It is also known as refractory (resistant to decomposition by heat) bricks. It is
manufactured from a specially designed earth. After burning, it can withstand very high
temperature without affecting its shape, size, and strength. It is used for the lining of chimney
and furnaces where the usual temperature is expected to be very high.

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Fire bricks
Uses:
• Building Walls
• Pavements and Walkways
• Fireplaces and Chimneys
• Arches and Lintels
• Boundary Walls
• Sewerage and Drainage Structures
• Partition Walls

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STONES: Stone is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of one or more minerals, formed from
the earth’s crust through geological processes.
Classification Based on Size:
Types Size
Boulders >300mm
Cobbles 80mm to 300mm
Gravel (Coarse aggregates) 4.75mm to 80mm
Sand (Fine aggregates) < 4.75mm

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Rubble masonry Masonry retaining wall

Stone Masonry foundation Stone walkways

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Landscaping

Gravel (Coarse aggregates)

Sand (Fine aggregates)

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Uses:
a) Concrete Preparation: Coarse aggregates is used in reinforced and plain cement concrete
preparation as a filler material and sand is used to fill up voids between cement paste and the
coarse aggregate.
b) Road Construction: Used in base and sub-base layers for roads, highways, and pavements
providing stability and load distribution in asphalt and concrete roads.
c) Railway Ballast: Placed beneath railway tracks to distribute load, reduce vibrations, and
provide drainage.
d) Retaining Structures: to prevent erosion and in retaining walls for slope stabilization.
e) Decorative Landscaping: Large-sized aggregates are used for garden pathways, driveways,
and decorative stone works.
f) Base Layer in Foundations: Coarse aggregates are laid as a bedding layer below stone
masonry foundations to improve drainage and prevent capillary rise of moisture.
g) Drainage Systems: Used in stormwater drains, septic tank, soak pits, and filtration beds to
facilitate proper water flow.
h) Mortar for Masonry Work: Fine aggregates are mixed with cement and water to make mortar
for bricklaying, plastering, and pointing.
i) Filter Media in Drainage Systems: Fine aggregates help in filtration in water treatment plants
and drainage layers in roads.

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CEMENT:
A cement is a binder, a chemical substance used for construction that sets, hardens, and adheres to
other materials to bind them together.

It is a fine powder made by grinding limestone, clay, and other minerals, which are then heated in
a kiln at very high temperatures to create a chemical reaction that results in the production of
clinker. The clinker is then ground into a fine powder, which is mixed with water and other
materials such as sand, gravel, and additives to create concrete.
Cement can be manufactured either from natural cement stones or artificially by using calcareous
and argillaceous materials.
Types of Cement:
a) Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC): This is the most used cement in construction. OPC is
made from limestone, clay, and gypsum, and is used in a variety of applications, including the
construction of buildings, roads etc
b) Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC): This type of cement is made by combining OPC with
pozzolanic materials such as fly ash or volcanic ash. PPC is known for its high strength and
durability This cement has a high resistance to various chemical attacks on concrete compared
with ordinary Portland cement, and thus, it is widely used. It is used in marine structures,
sewage works, sewage works, and for laying concrete underwater, such as bridges, piers, dams,
and mass concrete works, etc.

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c) Rapid Hardening Cement: This type of cement is designed to set and harden quickly, making
it useful in situations where fast construction is necessary. Rapid hardening cement is made by
grinding and heating a mixture of limestone and clay. The rate of hydration is higher in rapid
hardening cement.
d) Sulphate resisting cement: This type of cement is designed to resist the corrosive effects of
sulphates in soil and groundwater. This cement is used in conditions which requires resistant to
sulphate attack.
e) Portland blast furnace cement: Blast furnace slag cement is obtained by grinding the clinkers
with about 60% slag and resembles the properties of Portland cement. It can be used for works
where economic considerations are predominant. It is also called as slag cement.
f) Blast Furnace cement: In this cement the slag used is obtained from blast furnace. The slag is
a waste product in the manufacturing process of pig-iron and it contains the basic elements of
cement, namely, alumina, lime, and silica. The clinkers of cement are mixed with about 60 to
65 per cent of slag.
g) Coloured cement: Cements of desired colour (i.e., colour-Crete) is produced by intimately
mixing mineral pigments with ordinary cement. Coloured cements are widely used for
decorative works in floors, external surfaces, walls, etc.
h) Quick setting cement: This type of special cement starts setting within five minutes of water
addition and becomes hard like stone within 30 mins or so. This type of cement is used where
concrete work is to be completed in very short period such as concreting in static or running
water.
Different grades of cement:

OPC33 – Ordinary Portland cement of Grade 33

OPC43 - Ordinary Portland cement of Grade 43
OPC53 - Ordinary Portland cement of Grade 53

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OPC 33,43,53 refers to Compressive strength in N/mm2 obtained for a Cement cube of 70.6mm
X 70.6mm X 70.6mm size.
Uses:
Cement is used widely for the construction of various structures. Some of them are listed below:
• Cement slurry is used for filling cracks in concrete structures.
• Cement mortar is used for masonry work, plastering and pointing.
• Cement concrete is used for the construction of various structures like buildings, bridges.
water tanks, tunnels, docks, harbours etc.
• For manufacturing huge cement pipes, sewer pipes etc. cement is commonly used.

Cement Slurry = Cement + Water

Cement Mortar = Cement + Fine aggregates + water
Cement Concrete = Cement + Fine aggregates +Coarse aggregates + Water

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STRUCTURAL STEEL: Structural steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, along with small amounts
of other elements like manganese, sulphur, and phosphorus to get desired properties.
The following three varieties of steel are extensively used:
• Mild steel
• High carbon steel
• High tensile steel.
• HYSD Bars
Application:
▪ Round bars are extensively used as reinforcement in R.C.C. works.
▪ Rolled sections like I, T, L, C, plates etc. are used to build steel columns, beams, trusses
etc.
▪ Tubular sections are used as poles and members of trusses.
▪ Plain and corrugated mild steel are used as roofing materials.
▪ High carbon steel is capable of withstanding shocks and vibrations.
▪ High tensile steel wires are used in prestressed concrete works

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Steel sections

Steel structure

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WOOD:
Wood is a natural building material from trees, used in construction for structural and finishing
works like doors, windows, roofs, and flooring.

Types of wood for construction

a) Soft wood: Obtained from coniferous (evergreen) trees such as pine, cedar, etc
They are
• Light in weight
• Easy to cut and work with
• Less dense and less durable than hardwood
• Generally light in colour and has straight grains
b) Hard wood: Obtained from deciduous trees that shed leaves annually, such as teak, oak
etc.
They are
• Heavy, strong, and durable
• Denser with close grains
• More resistant to wear, decay, and pests
• Often darker in colour
c) Engineered wood: Man-made or manufactured wood products made by binding wood
fibres, veneers, or particles using adhesives under heat and pressure.
They are
• Uniform strength and size
• More economical and eco-friendly
• Less prone to warping or cracking

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Uses:
Type of Wood Common uses
• Flooring and staircases
• Door and window frames
Hardwood • Heavy furniture and cabinets
• Structural works (beams, columns)
• Panels and handrails
• Roof trusses and framing
• Temporary works (formwork, scaffolding)
Softwood • Light furniture and packing cases
• Plywood core material
• Interior fittings and partitions
• Modular furniture and cabinets
• Interior wall panels and ceilings
Engineered
• Doors, tables, and partitions
Wood
• Flooring and laminates
• Beams and frames

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Concrete:
Concrete is a homogeneous mixture of cement, coarse and fine aggregates and water mixed in a
definite proportion which consolidates into a hard mass due to chemical action between the cement
and water.
• The coarser aggregate acts as a filler.
• The fine aggregate fills up the voids between the paste and the coarse aggregate.
• The cement in conjunction with water acts as a binder.

Cement: OPC33, OPC 43 & OPC 53

Fine aggregate (Sand): River sand or Manufactured sand ((M – Sand)
Coarse aggregate (Stones): Size varies between 20mm to 4.75mm
Water: Potable water is generally used
Admixtures: These are the ingredients or substances which are added to concrete to improve its
properties like strength. hardness. water resisting power, workability etc. Many admixtures like
alum. aluminium sulphate, bitumen, calcium chloride, common salt. lime etc. are commonly used
for this purpose.
Grade of concrete depending upon the proportion of Fine aggregate, Coarse aggregate
Concrete Grade Mix Ratio (C: FA:CA)

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Different types of concrete:

1. Plain or ordinary Concrete: The plain concrete will have no reinforcement in it. The main
constituents are the cement, aggregates, and water. Most used mix design is 1:2:4 which is the
normal mix design. The density of the plain concrete will vary between 2200 and 2500
Kg/meter cube. The compressive strength is 20 to 50 N/mm2.
2. Reinforced Concrete: The reinforced cement concrete is defined as the concrete to which
reinforcement is introduced to bear the tensile strength. Plain concrete is weak in tension and
good in compression. Hence the placement of reinforcement will enhance the tensile strength
of concrete.
3. Lightweight Concrete: Concrete that have a density lesser than 1920kg/m3 will be
categorized as lightweight concrete. The use of lightweight aggregates in concrete design will
give us lightweight aggregates. Aggregates are the important element that contributes to the
density of the concrete. The examples of light weight aggregates are the pumice, perlites, and
scoria.
4. High Strength Concrete: The concretes that have strength greater than 40MPa can be termed
as high strength concrete. This increased strength is achieved by decreasing the water-cement
ratio even lower than 0.35.
5. Self-compacting concrete (SCC): also known as self-consolidating concrete, is a highly
flowable concrete that spreads and fills formwork under its own weight without mechanical
vibration

Uses:
Type of Concrete Applications
• Used as a course beneath footings and foundations to provide
a uniform and stable base.
Plain or Ordinary • In Water Tanks and Sumps used as a base to prevent direct
Concrete contact of reinforcement with soil and water.
• In damp Proof Course (DPC) as a thin layer to resist dampness
in walls and floors.
• Beams, slabs, and columns in buildings
Reinforced • Bridges, dams,
Concrete (RCC) • retaining walls
• Water tanks and structural frames

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• High-rise building blocks to reduce dead load

Lightweight
• Roof insulation –
Concrete
• Precast wall panels and partition walls
• High-rise buildings and long-span bridges
• Pre-stressed and post-tensioned structures
High Strength
• Industrial floors and heavy-duty pavements
Concrete
• Structural members requiring high load-bearing
capacity
• Complex reinforced sections and congested
Self-Compacting reinforcement areas.
Concrete (SCC) • Repairs and retrofitting works where vibration is
difficult

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STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS OF A BUILDING:

The structural elements of a building include
a) Foundation
b) Plinth
c) Sill
d) Lintel
e) Chejja
f) Masonry wall
g) Column
h) Beam
i) Slab
j) Staircase
Foundation: Foundation refers to the structural element that supports and transfers the loads of a
building, structure, or any other type of construction to the underlying soil or rock. It is the lowest
part of a structure (Substructure) that provides stability and prevents settlement or excessive
movement.
OBJECTIVE OF FOUNDATIONS:
The foundations are the sub-structural elements which transmit the structural load to the earth in
such a way that the
✓ The supporting soil is not overstressed.
✓ Does not undergo deformation that would cause excessive settlement of the structure.

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Shallow foundations:
✓ A foundation is said to be shallow foundation if the ratio of Depth by Breadth is less than or
equal to 1 (D/B ≤1)
✓ A shallow foundation transmits structural loads to the soil relatively to smaller depth.
✓ The first preference for foundation is shallow foundation unless they are considered in adequate.
Types of Shallow Foundation:
✓ Isolated footing
✓ Combined footing
✓ Cantilever or Strap footing
✓ Mat or Raft Foundation
Isolated Footing:
✓ Isolated footing comprises a foundation directly at the base of the column.
✓ It might be rectangular, square, or Circular in shape.
✓ The size of the footing can be roughly calculated by dividing the total load at the column
base by the allowable bearing capacity of the soil (SBC).

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Combined footing: A footing that supports two or more columns is termed a combined footing.
Such footing is provided when the individual footings are either very near to each other, or overlap.
Combined footing may either be rectangular or trapezoidal.

Combined footing

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Cantilever or strap footing:

A strap footing consists of spread footing of two columns by a strap beam. The strap beam does
not have any contact with soil and thus does not transfer any pressure to the soil.
Such footings are generally used to combine the footing of the outer column to the adjacent one
so that the footing of the former does not extend in the adjoining property.

Cantilever or strap footing

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Raft Foundations: A raft foundation consists of a reinforced concrete slab placed over the entire
area of the structure. In this type, the whole basement floor slab acts as the foundation. The total
load of the structure is spread evenly over the entire area of the structure. This is called a raft
because, in this case, the building seems like a vessel that floats on a sea of soil. It is also
recommended in situations where the bearing capacity of the soil is inadequate, the load of the
structure is to be distributed over a large area, or the structure is subjected continuously to shocks
or jerks.

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Raft or mat foundation

Deep Foundation:
✓ A foundation is said to be Deep foundation if the ratio of Depth by Breadth is greater than
(D/B > 1).
✓ Deep foundation is preferred in areas where the soil is too weak to support the weight of the
structure.

Various types of deep foundations are

Pile Foundations: Pile foundations consist of long, slender columns that are driven deep into the
ground and provide support for the building. Pile foundations consist of long, slender columns or
piles that are made of concrete, steel, or timber, and are driven deep into the ground using
specialized equipment. The piles are driven into the soil until they reach a stable layer, such as a
hard rock or stiff clay layer, that can support the weight of the structure. The piles can be driven
vertically, at an angle, depending on the design requirements and the soil condition.

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Pile foundation

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Well foundations: Well foundations are a type of deep foundation system that are used to support
large and heavy structures in areas with soft and weak soil. They are commonly used in marine
environments, such as offshore oil platforms, bridges, and ports, where the soil conditions are
challenging and the foundation must be installed underwater.

Well foundation

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Plinth: A plinth is a horizontal platform or base that is used to support a building or other structure
above the ground level. It is typically made of concrete or masonry and is built at or slightly above
ground level, serving as the platform for the structure above.
The plinth Level is a specific height from the ground level at which building superstructure
construction starts. Generally, the plinth level height is kept between 300 mm to 450 mm.
Plinth Beams are constructed between the foundation and walls and are reinforced concrete beams,
these beams are provided when the foundation suffers from settlement to prevent the expansion or
spread of cracks in the wall from the foundation and the foundation but these beams distribute the
load of a wall

Purpose of providing plinth beam:

a) These beams in the structures prevent differential settlement and all the loads on the
plinth beams are transferred equally due to the foundation.
b) These beams prevent moisture from entering the building from the foundation.
c) These beam binds all the column
d) These beams distribute load evenly.

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Sill: Sill is a horizontal structural element placed at the base of openings such as windows and
doors. It is typically made of stone, wood, concrete, or metal and serves to support the frame,
distribute loads, prevent water ingress, and enhance structural stability.

Application:
✓ Provides a stable base for window and door frames, ensuring proper alignment and load
distribution.
✓ Helps in transferring loads from the frame to the supporting structure, reducing stress
concentration.
✓ Prevents water ingress by acting as a barrier, especially in window sills designed with a slope
for drainage.
✓ Enhances the visual appeal of doors and windows by providing a decorative transition between
the frame and wall.

Lintel: A lintel is a horizontal structural element, that spans an opening such as a door or window
to support the weight of the structure above.

Lintel

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The different types of lintels are:

a) Stone lintel: The use of stone lintels is very common. Its use is usually confined to stone
masonry It consists of chisel-dressed stone slabs either a single piece or more than a piece. It is
not suitable for large spans, since it is very heavy. It is used in stone masonry structures such
as temples, etc.

b) Brick lintels: Brick lintels consist of bricks which are generally placed on end or edge as shown
✓ The bricks should be well-burnt, copper-coloured, free from cracks and with sharp and
square edges.
✓ In case of heavier loads brick lintel with reinforcement is used.

Brick Lintel

c) Wooden lintels: Wooden lintels consist of pieces of timber which are placed across the
opening. The timber lintels are the oldest types of lintels and they have become obsolete except
in hilly areas or places where timber is easily available.
✓ The wood lintels are liable to be destroyed by fire and are liable to decay, if not properly
ventilated. Hence sound and hard timber like teak should be used in the construction of
wood lintels and a coat of suitable preservative should be applied.
✓ The bearing of about 150mm to 200mm are to be provided.

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Wooden Lintel

d) RCC lintels: These lintels consist of the reinforced cement concrete and they have replaced
practically all other materials for the lintel The R.C.C. lintels are fire-proof, durable, strong,
economical, and easy to construct.

RCC Lintel

Chejja: A chejja is a projection located just above the window which provides shade and prevents
rain from entering the window.
The several functions of chejja are:
✓ It protects the house from external sunlight.
✓ It protects the house by providing a barrier for rain water to enter.
✓ Chejja serves as an aesthetic decoration to the building.

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Chejja
Masonry Wall: A masonry wall is a type of wall construction that is built using individual units
or elements, such as bricks, concrete blocks, or stone. These units are bound together with mortar,
a mixture of cement, sand, and water, to create a solid and durable wall.
TYPES OF MASONRY WALL
✓ Load Bearing Masonry wall
✓ Reinforced Masonry wall
✓ Cavity Masonry wall
✓ Composite Masonry wall

Load Bearing Masonry wall: A load-bearing masonry wall, also known as a bearing wall or a
structural wall, is a wall that carries the weight of the structure above it, including the roof or
additional floors. It is an essential component of many buildings and provides structural stability
and support. Load-bearing masonry walls are constructed using materials such as bricks, concrete
blocks, or stone, which can withstand compression forces. These walls are designed to transfer the
weight from the upper levels of the building to the foundation, ensuring that the structure remains
stable and can handle the imposed loads.

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Building with load bearing masonry wall

Reinforced Masonry wall: A reinforced masonry wall is a type of load-bearing wall that
incorporates reinforcement elements to enhance its structural strength and durability. It combines
masonry units (bricks, blocks, or stones) with reinforcement materials such as steel bars or wire
mesh to resist tensile and shear forces that masonry alone may not handle effectively. The
reinforcement helps to distribute the loads and improve the overall performance of the wall.

Reinforced masonry wall construction

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Cavity Masonry wall: A cavity masonry wall is a type of wall construction that consists of two
parallel masonry wythes (layers) separated by an air gap known as a cavity. The walls are typically
made of brick, concrete blocks, or stone, and the cavity between them is left unfilled or partially
filled with insulating material. This construction method offers several advantages, including
improved insulation, moisture resistance, and structural stability.

Composite Masonry wall: A composite masonry wall refers to a wall construction system that
combines different types of masonry materials to create a single wall assembly. It involves the use
of two or more masonry layers made of different materials or different types of masonry units. The
combination of these materials provides a range of benefits, including improved structural
performance, enhanced insulation, and aesthetic versatility.

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Column: A column is a vertical load-bearing element that transfers loads from beams, slabs, or
other structural components to the foundation. It primarily withstands compressive forces,
ensuring structural stability and strength.
Columns are primarily used to transfer loads from the upper parts of a structure to the foundation,
providing stability and structural integrity.

Classification of columns
❖ Based on the shape.
❖ Based on the types of loading.

Classification based on the shape

Classification based on type of loading

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Beam: A beam is a horizontal structural element that primarily resists loads applied laterally to
the beam's axis designed to carry loads and its mode of bending is primarily by bending.

Beam
Classification of beam:
a) Simply Supported beam: A beam resting on two simple supports at the ends are called simply
supported beams.

Simply supported beam

b) Cantilever beam: A cantilever beam is one in which one end of the beam is fixed supported
and the other end is free.

Cantilever beam

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c) Overhanging beam: If the end portion of a beam extends beyond the support, then the beam
is known as overhanging beam. Overhanging may be on one of the supports or on both the
sides.

Overhanging beam
d) Continuous beam: A beam having more than two supports in its span is called a continuous
beam.

Continuous beam Four Supports

e) Fixed beam: A fixed beam is one which has both its ends o fixed supports.

Fixed beam

f) Propped Cantilever beam: A beam in which one end is fixed support and the other end is
simple support is called a propped cantilever beam.

Propped Cantilever beam

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Slab: A slab is a structural element that is typically horizontal and has a relatively large surface
area compared to its thickness supported by beams, columns, walls and primarily resists loads by
bending.
Types of Slabs:
i. One-way Slab: The ratio of longer span to the shorter span is greater than 2.

ii. Two-Way Slab: The ratio of longer span to the shorter span is lesser than or equal to 2.

iii. Flat Slab: Flat slab is a slab of reinforced concrete that firmly rests on columns. The flat slab
method eliminates the need for beams by directly supporting the slab with columns.

Flat slab

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iv. Waffle slab: A waffle slab is a reinforced concrete floor or roof construction technique that
consists of a series of uniformly spaced ribs or beams forming a grid-like pattern. The resulting
structural system resembles the shape of a waffle, hence the name waffle slab.

Waffle slab
Staircase: A staircase is a structure consisting of a series of steps or stairs that enables people to
move between different levels or floors in a building.
A staircase provides access from one floor to other floor of the building

Different parts of staircase:

i. Stair: It is a combination of tread and riser which permits ascent and descent from one floor to
another.
ii. Tread: The upper horizontal portion of the step over which foot is placed during ascending or
descending a stairway is known as tread.

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iii. Riser: The vertical member of the step is known as riser. It is used to support and connect
successive treads.
iv. Landing: A horizontal platform between two successive flight of a stair is called landing.
Landing is used as a resting place during use of the stair. It facilitates the change of direction
of the flight.
v. Baluster: It is an individual vertical member made of timber, metal, or masonry and fixed
between string and hand rail to provide support to the hand rail.
vi. Handrail: It is an inclined rail provided at convenient height over balustrades. The inclination
of the rail is parallel to the slope of the stair.
Types of staircases:
✓ Dog legged staircase: A dog-legged staircase consists of two straight flight sections connected
by a landing. The name "dog-legged" comes from the resemblance of the staircase's shape to a
dog's hind leg when viewed from above.
The arrow mark in the figure indicates the two flights of the staircase

Dog-legged staircase
✓ Open-well staircase: This type of stair consists of two or more flights arranging a well or
opening between the backward and forward flights.

Open-well staircase

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Flooring:
Flooring is the permanent covering for a floor's surface, made of a durable material to provide a
walking surface for daily activities, and it can also be installed to enhance a room's aesthetics,
insulation, and comfort
The different types of flooring are given below:
a) Mud-flooring
b) Timber flooring
c) Mosaic flooring
d) Marble flooring
e) Granolithic flooring
Mud-flooring:

Mud flooring
Mud floors are generally used for unimportant buildings, particularly in villages of India. They are
cheap, hard, impervious, and easy in construction and maintenance. They maintain an equable
(i.e., uniform) temperature (because of good thermal insulation property) both in the summer and
winter seasons and hence are best suited under Indian conditions where extreme temperature
variations exist.

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Timber flooring:

In hilly areas, where the climate is damp and wood is easily available, wooden members called
‘sleeper plates’ are fixed on the top of sleeper walls. The floor joists are secured to the sleeper
walls by being nailed to the sleeper wall plates. A damp-proof course layer is laid immediately
below the wall plates to prevent the rising of dampness. The hollow space between the flooring
and the oversite concrete is kept dry and fully ventilated.
Mosaic flooring:

Mosaic flooring is made by embedding small pieces of marble, coloured stones, or tiles (called
tesserae) into a base of cement mortar. These pieces are arranged in different decorative patterns
or designs. After laying, the surface is rubbed and polished to obtain a smooth, glossy, and
attractive finish. It is durable, resistant to wear, and easy to clean. Mosaic floors are commonly
used in residential buildings, schools, hospitals, and public places where both aesthetic appearance
and durability are required.

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Marble flooring:

Marble flooring is made using marble stone slabs of uniform thickness. The slabs are laid over a
prepared concrete base with a thin layer of cement mortar. Joints between the slabs are filled with
white cement mixed with pigment to match the marble colour. After laying, the surface is rubbed,
polished, and finished to give a smooth and glossy appearance. It is highly durable, strong, and
has an elegant look, making it popular in temples, hotels, offices, and luxury residences. However,
it is costly and requires periodic maintenance to retain its shine.

Granolithic flooring:

Granolithic flooring is a hard-wearing surface made from a mixture of cement, sand, and specially
selected coarse aggregates (like granite chips). The mix is laid over a prepared concrete base in a

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layer about 25–40 mm thick. After laying, the surface is well compacted, trowelled, and finished
smooth. Sometimes metallic hardeners are added to increase durability. It is resistant to abrasion
and impact, making it suitable for factories, workshops, warehouses, pavements, and other places
subjected to heavy traffic and wear. It is cheaper than marble or mosaic flooring but provides less
decorative appearance.

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