STUDY NOTES BLUEPRINT: BREATHING
AND EXCHANGE OF GASES
📖 CHAPTER 14: BREATHING AND
Optimized for an A4 page layout, ideal for quick review and guiding handwritten notes.
EXCHANGE OF GASES
1. INTRODUCTION & BASIC CONCEPTS
Why Breathe?
● Oxygen ( ) is utilized by organisms to indirectly break down simple molecules (like
glucose, amino acids, and fatty acids) to derive energy ( ) for various activities.
● Carbon dioxide ( ), which is harmful, is continuously released during these catabolic
reactions.
● Definition: Breathing (Respiration) is the process of exchange of from the
atmosphere with produced by the cells.
2. RESPIRATORY ORGANS ACROSS ANIMALS (14.1)
● Basis of Variation: Mechanisms of breathing vary depending on:
1. Habitat
2. Level of organization
🔄 Comparison of Mechanisms
Organism Type Respiratory Organ / Mechanism
Lower Invertebrates (Sponges, Simple Diffusion (over the entire body
Coelenterates, Flatworms) surface)
Earthworms Moist Cuticle
Insects Tracheal Tubes (network of tubes)
Most Aquatic Arthropods, Molluscs, & Gills (Branchial Respiration - specialized
Fishes vascularized structures)
Terrestrial Forms (Amphibians, Reptiles, Lungs (Pulmonary Respiration -
Birds, Mammals) vascularized bags)
Special Case: Frogs Dual pathway: Lungs & moist skin
(Cutaneous Respiration)
3. HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM (14.1.1)
🗺️ Anatomical Pathway (The Air Passages)
(Note: Pharynx is the common passage for food and air; Larynx is the Sound Box)
🔍 Structure Details
● Larynx: Cartilaginous box that helps in sound production (Sound Box).
● Epiglottis: Thin, elastic, cartilaginous flap that can cover the glottis during swallowing to
prevent food from entering the larynx.
● Trachea: A straight tube extending down to the mid-thoracic cavity. It divides at the
thoracic vertebra into right and left primary bronchi.
● Bronchial Tree:
🛡️ Key Structural Features
● Support: The trachea, primary/secondary/tertiary bronchi, and initial bronchioles are
supported by incomplete cartilaginous rings.
● Alveoli: Formed by terminal bronchioles; very thin, irregular-walled, vascularized bag-like
structures.
● The Lungs: Comprise the branching network of bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli.
○ Covered by a double-layered Pleura containing Pleural Fluid between them to
reduce friction on the lung surface.
○ Outer Pleural Membrane: In close contact with the thoracic lining.
○ Inner Pleural Membrane: In contact with the lung surface.
┌────────────────────────────────────────┐
│ HUMAN RESPIRATORY DIVISIONS │
└──────────────────┬────────────────────┘
|
┌─────────────────────────┴──────────────────────┐
▼ ▼
┌───────────────────────┐ ┌───────────────────────┐
│ CONDUCTING PART │ │ EXCHANGE / RESP. PART│
├───────────────────────┤ ├───────────────────────┤
│• Ext. nostrils to │ │• Alveoli and their │
│ terminal bronchioles │ │ associated ducts │
├───────────────────────┤ ├───────────────────────┤
│• Transports air │ │• Site of actual gas │
│• Clears foreign particles │ diffusion between │
│• Humidifies air & brings │ blood and air │
│ air to body temp │ │ │
└───────────────────────┘ └───────────────────────┘
📦 Thoracic Chamber (Anatomical Setup)
Anatomically, this is an air-tight chamber. Its boundaries are:
● Dorsal: Vertebral column
● Ventral: Sternum
● Lateral: Ribs
● Lower side: Dome-shaped Diaphragm
Significance: This setup ensures that any change in the volume of the thoracic
cavity is directly reflected in the lung (pulmonary) cavity. This is essential for
breathing because we cannot directly alter pulmonary volume.
4. STEPS IN RESPIRATION (OVERVIEW)
1. Breathing (Pulmonary Ventilation): Atmospheric air is drawn in and -rich alveolar
air is released.
2. Diffusion of Gases: Exchange of and across the alveolar membrane.
3. Transport of Gases: Transport of gases through the blood.
4. Diffusion of Gases: Exchange of and between blood and tissues.
5. Utilisation of : Uptake of by cells for catabolic reactions and the consequent
release of (Cellular Respiration).
5. MECHANISM OF BREATHING (14.2)
● Core Principle: Movement of air in and out is driven by creating a pressure gradient
between the lungs and the atmosphere.
● Inspiration: Occurs when the pressure within the lungs (intra-pulmonary pressure) is less
than atmospheric pressure (negative pressure in the lungs).
● Expiration: Occurs when the intra-pulmonary pressure is higher than atmospheric
pressure.
● Muscles Involved: The diaphragm and a specialized set of muscles (external and internal
intercostals between the ribs) generate these pressure gradients.
🔄 Comparing Breathing Phases
⬆️ ⬇️
COLUMN 1: INSPIRATION (Active COLUMN 2: EXPIRATION (Passive
Process) Process)
1. Initiation: Contraction of the Diaphragm. 1. Initiation: Relaxation of the diaphragm
and intercostal muscles.
2. Volume Change 1: Increases thoracic 2. Volume Change 1: Diaphragm and
chamber volume in the antero-posterior sternum return to their normal positions.
axis.
3. Muscular Action: Contraction of 3. Volume Change 2: Reduces the overall
external intercostal muscles lifts the ribs thoracic volume.
and sternum.
4. Volume Change 2: Increases thoracic 4. Pulmonary Volume: Directly reduces the
chamber volume in the dorso-ventral axis. pulmonary volume.
5. Pulmonary Volume: Overall increase in 5. Pressure Change: Leads to an increase
thoracic volume causes a matching in intra-pulmonary pressure slightly above
increase in pulmonary volume. atmospheric pressure.
6. Pressure Change: Increase in pulmonary 6. Air Movement: Forces air to be expelled
volume decreases intra-pulmonary from the lungs.
pressure to less than atmospheric
pressure.
7. Air Movement: Forces air from outside
to move into the lungs.
ℹ️ Additional Info:
● We can increase the strength of inspiration/expiration using additional muscles in the
abdomen.
● Average healthy human breathing rate: 12–16 times/minute.
● Spirometer: An instrument used to estimate the volume of air involved in breathing
movements; crucial for the clinical assessment of pulmonary functions.
6. RESPIRATORY VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES (14.2.1)
📊 Respiratory Volumes
Volume Definition Average Value
Tidal Volume (TV) Volume of air inspired or
Approx. (Healthy
expired during a normal
man: 6000–8000 mL/min)
respiration.
Inspiratory Reserve Additional volume of air a
to
Volume (IRV) person can inspire by a
forcible inspiration.
Expiratory Reserve Additional volume of air a
to
Volume (ERV) person can expire by a
forcible expiration.
Residual Volume (RV) Volume of air remaining in
to
the lungs even after a
forcible expiration.
🧮 Respiratory Capacities
Calculated by combining the values from the respiratory volumes.
7. EXCHANGE OF GASES (14.3)
● Primary Sites: Alveoli are the primary sites. Exchange also occurs between the blood and
tissues.
● Mechanism: Simple diffusion based on pressure/concentration gradients.
● Key Factors Affecting Rate of Diffusion:
1. Pressure/concentration gradient
2. Solubility of the gases
3. Thickness of the membranes involved
Key Term: Partial Pressure
The pressure contributed by an individual gas in a mixture of gases. It is
represented as for oxygen and for carbon dioxide.
💨 Partial Pressures of and at Different Sites (in mmHg)
Respirator Atmospher Alveoli Blood Blood Tissues
y Gas ic Air (Deoxygen (Oxygenat
ated) ed)
📈 Concentration Gradients
● Oxygen Gradient: Exists from Alveoli ( ) Blood ( ) and
Blood ( ) Tissues ( ).
● Carbon Dioxide Gradient: Exists in the opposite direction, from Tissues ( )
Blood ( ) and Blood ( ) Alveoli ( ).
🧬 Diffusion Specifics
● Solubility: times higher than the solubility of .
● Result: The amount of diffusing through the membrane per unit difference in
partial pressure is much higher compared to .
🔬 The Diffusion Membrane (A Section of Alveolus)
Made of three major layers with a total thickness of much less than a millimeter:
1. Thin squamous epithelium of alveoli.
2. Endothelium of alveolar capillaries.
3. Basement substance (composed of a thin basement membrane supporting the squamous
epithelium and a basement membrane surrounding the single-layer endothelial cells)
located in between them.
● Conclusion: All physical factors are highly favorable for diffusion from alveoli to
tissues and diffusion from tissues to alveoli.
8. TRANSPORT OF GASES (14.4)
● Medium: Blood.
🔴 8a. TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN (14.4.1)
┌────────────────────────────────────────┐
│ OXYGEN TRANSPORT PATHWAYS │
└───────────────────┬────────────────────┘
│
┌────────────┴────────────┐
▼ ▼
┌───────────────────────┐ ┌───────────────────────┐
│ VIA RBCs │ │ VIA PLASMA │
├───────────────────────┤ ├───────────────────────┤
│ • ~97% of total O₂ │ │ • ~3% of total O₂ │
│ • Bound to Hb │ │ • Dissolved state │
└───────────────────────┘ └───────────────────────┘
Role of Haemoglobin (Hb)
● Red-colored, iron-containing pigment located in RBCs.
● binds reversibly to Hb to form Oxyhaemoglobin.
● Capacity: Each Hb molecule can carry a maximum of four molecules of .
● Factors Affecting Binding:
○ Partial pressure of (primary driver)
○ Partial pressure of (interferes with binding)
○ Hydrogen ion concentration ( ) (interferes)
○ Temperature (interferes)
Oxygen Dissociation Curve
● Definition: A sigmoid curve obtained when the percentage saturation of Hb with is
plotted against .
● Utility: Highly useful in studying the effects of factors like , concentration,
and temperature on binding.
⚖️ Comparison of Conditions
In Alveoli (Lung Surface) — Favouring In Tissues — Favouring Dissociation
Association
* High * Low
* Low * High
* Lesser concentration * High concentration
* Lower temperature * Higher temperature
Result: binds tightly to Hb. Result: dissociates from
Oxyhaemoglobin.
Key Delivery Stat: Every of oxygenated blood can deliver around
of to tissues under normal physiological conditions.
🔵 8b. TRANSPORT OF CARBON DIOXIDE (14.4.2)
┌────────────────────────────────────────┐
│ CARBON DIOXIDE TRANSPORT │
└───────────────────┬────────────────────┘
│
┌───────────────────────┼────────────────────────┐
▼ ▼ ▼
┌───────────────────┐ ┌───────────────────┐
┌───────────────────┐
│ AS BICARBONATE │ │ CARBAMINO-HB │ │ DISSOLVED PLASMA │
├───────────────────┤ ├───────────────────┤
├───────────────────┤
│ • ~70% of CO₂ │ │ • ~20-25% of CO₂ │ │ • ~7% of CO₂ │
│ • Key enzyme driven │ │ • Bound directly │ │ • Dissolved state │
└───────────────────┘ └───────────────────┘
└───────────────────┘
Transport by Haemoglobin (Carbamino-haemoglobin)
● Binding is directly related to .
● is the major factor affecting this binding.
● Conditions: When is high and is low (at the tissues), more binding
occurs. When is low and is high (at the alveoli), dissociation of from
Carbamino-haemoglobin takes place.
Transport as Bicarbonate (The Enzyme Key)
● Enzyme: Carbonic Anhydrase. It is found in very high concentrations in RBCs and in
minute quantities in the plasma. This enzyme facilitates the reaction in both directions:
Process Overview (Flow of )
1. At Tissues: is high (due to ongoing catabolism). diffuses into the blood
(RBCs and plasma) forms and .
2. Transport: trapped as bicarbonate at the tissue level is transported directly to the
alveoli.
3. At Alveoli: is low. The reaction proceeds in the exact opposite direction, leading
to the formation of and , allowing to be expired.
Key Delivery Stat: Every of deoxygenated blood delivers approximately
of to the alveoli.
9. REGULATION OF RESPIRATION (14.5)
● Ability: Human beings possess a significant ability to moderate respiratory rhythms to suit
metabolic tissue demands.
● System: Controlled primarily by the neural system.
🧠 Key Centres in the Brain
● Respiratory Rhythm Centre: Located in the medulla oblongata; primarily responsible for
respiratory regulation.
● Pneumotaxic Centre: Located in the pons Varolii; moderates the functions of the
respiratory rhythm centre.
○ Function: Neural signals from this centre can reduce the duration of inspiration,
altering the respiratory rate.
🧪 Chemical Regulation
● Chemosensitive Area: Situated adjacent to the rhythm centre.
○ Sensitivity: Highly sensitive to and ions.
○ Action: An increase in these substances activates this center, which then signals the
rhythm centre to make adjustments for elimination.
● Receptors in Arteries: Associated with the aortic arch and carotid artery.
○ Function: Recognize changes in and concentrations and send signals to
the rhythm centre for immediate remedial action.
🚨 The Crucial Insight: The role of oxygen ( ) in the regulation of respiratory
rhythm is quite insignificant.
10. DISORDERS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM (14.6)
┌────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│ RESPIRATORY DISORDERS │
└──────────────────────────┬─────────────────────────────┘
│
┌─────────────────────────┼─────────────────────────┐
▼ ▼ ▼
┌───────────────────┐ ┌───────────────────┐
┌───────────────────┐
│ ASTHMA │ │ EMPHYSEMA │ │ OCCUPATIONAL │
├───────────────────┤ ├───────────────────┤
├───────────────────┤
│• Wheezing & pain │ │• Chronic disorder │ │• Fibrosis / lung │
│• Inflammation of │ │• Alveolar walls │ │ damage from dust │
│ bronchi/oles │ │ damaged; surface │ │• Prevented by │
│ │ │ area decreased │ │ protective masks │
│ │ │• Caused by smoking│ │ │
└───────────────────┘ └───────────────────┘
└───────────────────┘
● Asthma: Difficulty in breathing causing wheezing due to inflammation of the bronchi and
bronchioles.
● Emphysema: A chronic disorder where alveolar walls are damaged, resulting in a
significantly decreased respiratory surface area. The major cause is cigarette smoking.
● Occupational Respiratory Disorders:
○ Context: Certain industries (such as grinding and stone-breaking) produce so much
dust that the body's natural defense mechanisms cannot cope.
○ Long-term effect: Persistent inflammation leading to fibrosis (proliferation of fibrous
tissues), which causes serious, irreversible lung damage.
○ Prevention: Workers must wear protective masks.