Chapter 21

Nutrition and Digestion

Campbell Biology: Concepts & Connections, 10th Edition (Global)
Study Notes — slides + textbook combined

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Contents
Contents .....................................................................................................................................2
Part 1 — Obtaining and Processing Food ...................................................................................3
21.1 Animals Obtain and Ingest Their Food in a Variety of Ways ............................................3
21.2 Food Processing Occurs in Four Stages ..........................................................................3
21.3 Digestion Occurs in Specialized Compartments ..............................................................3
Part 2 — The Human Digestive System ......................................................................................5
21.4 The Human Digestive System: Alimentary Canal + Accessory Organs ............................5
21.5 Digestion Begins in the Oral Cavity..................................................................................5
21.6 After Swallowing, Peristalsis Moves Food to the Stomach ...............................................6
21.7 Connection: The Heimlich Maneuver Can Save Lives .....................................................6
21.8 The Stomach Stores Food and Breaks It Down with Acid and Enzymes ..........................7
21.9 Connection: Digestive Ailments — Acid Reflux and Gastric Ulcers ..................................7
21.10 The Small Intestine: Major Organ of Chemical Digestion & Absorption ..........................8
21.11 The Liver Processes and Detoxifies Blood from the Intestines .......................................9
21.12 The Large Intestine Reclaims Water and Compacts the Feces ....................................10
21.13 Evolution Connection: Digestive Systems Relate to Diet .............................................10
Part 3 — Nutrition .....................................................................................................................11
21.14 An Animal's Diet Must Provide Sufficient Energy .........................................................11
21.15 An Animal's Diet Must Supply Essential Nutrients ........................................................11
21.16 A Proper Human Diet Must Include Sufficient Vitamins and Minerals...........................12
21.17 Connection: Food Labels Provide Nutritional Information.............................................13
21.18 Connection: Dietary Deficiencies Can Have a Number of Causes ...............................14
21.19 Evolution Connection: Obesity May Reflect Our Evolutionary Past ..............................14
21.20 Scientific Thinking: Testing Weight Loss Claims ..........................................................15
21.21 Connection: Diet, Cardiovascular Disease, and Cancer ...............................................16
Exam Quick-Reference .............................................................................................................17
The journey of food (in order) ................................................................................................17
Accessory organs and what they add ....................................................................................17
Enzyme cheat-sheet ..............................................................................................................17
Key terms to know .................................................................................................................17
Common exam 'gotchas' .......................................................................................................17
Part 1 — Obtaining and Processing Food
21.1 Animals Obtain and Ingest Their Food in a Variety of Ways
• All animals eat other organisms — dead or alive, whole or in pieces. Animal diets vary
extensively.
– Herbivores (e.g., cattle, gorillas, snails) eat mainly plants and algae.
– Carnivores (e.g., lions, spiders, whales) mostly eat other animals.
– Omnivores (e.g., humans, crows, cockroaches) eat both plants and animals.
• Four major feeding mechanisms have evolved:
– Suspension feeders capture food particles from the surrounding medium (e.g., manta
ray).
– Substrate feeders live in or on their food source and eat their way through it (e.g.,
caterpillar).
– Fluid feeders suck nutrient-rich fluids from a living host (e.g., mosquito).
– Bulk feeders ingest large pieces of food (e.g., heron).
In simple terms: Animals are grouped by WHAT they eat (plants, meat, or both) and by HOW
they eat: filtering particles from water, burrowing through their food, sucking up fluids, or
swallowing big chunks.

21.2 Food Processing Occurs in Four Stages

• Food is processed in four stages:
1. Ingestion — taking in food.
2. Digestion — breaking food down (mechanical, then chemical).
3. Absorption — nutrient molecules enter body cells.
4. Elimination — undigested material is removed.
• Chemical digestion is necessary because animals cannot directly use the proteins,
carbohydrates, fats, and nucleic acids in food.
• Chemical digestion (hydrolysis) breaks large molecules into their building blocks:
– Protein → amino acids (protein-digesting enzymes)
– Polysaccharides / disaccharides → monosaccharides (carbohydrate-digesting
enzymes)
– Nucleic acid → nucleotides (nucleic-acid-digesting enzymes)
– Fat → glycerol + fatty acids (fat-digesting enzymes)
In simple terms: Food goes through 4 steps: eat it (ingestion), break it down (digestion), take it
in (absorption), get rid of the rest (elimination). The molecules in food are too big to use, so
enzymes chop them into small pieces the body can actually absorb.

21.3 Digestion Occurs in Specialized Compartments

• Sponges are the only animals that digest their food entirely in food vacuoles.
• Most animals digest food in compartments:
– Cnidarians and flatworms have a gastrovascular cavity — a compartment with a single
opening (the mouth).
– Most animals have an alimentary canal that runs from mouth to anus, with specialized
regions along the way.
From the textbook (not on slides)
 • Animals avoid digesting their own tissues by confining digestion to specialized
compartments — either inside cells (food vacuoles) or outside cells (extracellular).
• Food vacuole: a cell engulfs food by phagocytosis, the vacuole fuses with a lysosome full
of enzymes, and small molecules then pass into the cytosol.
• Hydra (gastrovascular cavity) sequence: (1) cells release digestive enzymes, (2) food is
broken into small particles, (3) other cells engulf the particles, (4) digestion finishes inside
food vacuoles; waste exits through the single opening.
• An alimentary canal (gut) is a tube with two openings, so food moves one way and regions
can act in sequence: pharynx → esophagus → crop (softens/stores) → stomach/gizzard
(churn & grind) → intestine (chemical digestion + absorption) → anus.
• Earthworm: muscular pharynx sucks in food → esophagus → crop stores it → gizzard
grinds it (with swallowed sand/gravel) → intestine digests/absorbs → anus.
• Grasshopper: crop stores food → midgut (with gastric pouches) digests and absorbs →
hindgut reabsorbs water and compacts waste.
• Bird: crop stores → stomach → gravel-filled gizzard pulverizes → intestine digests/absorbs.
• Advantage of an alimentary canal over a gastrovascular cavity: its specialized regions can
carry out digestion and absorption sequentially (stepwise), which is more efficient.
In simple terms: Simple animals (sponges) digest food inside cells. Slightly more complex ones
(jellyfish, flatworms) use a single-opening pouch. Most animals use a one-way tube (mouth →
anus) where each section does a different job — like an assembly line for food.
Part 2 — The Human Digestive System
21.4 The Human Digestive System: Alimentary Canal + Accessory Organs
• In humans, food is:
– ingested and chewed in the mouth (oral cavity),
– pushed by the tongue into the pharynx,
– moved through the alimentary canal by the rhythmic muscle contractions of peristalsis,
and
– moved into and out of the stomach by sphincters.
• Final digestion and nutrient absorption occur in the small intestine.
• Undigested material moves slowly through the large intestine and is expelled through the
anus.
• Alimentary canal parts: oral cavity → pharynx → esophagus → stomach → small
intestine → large intestine → rectum → anus.
• Accessory organs (secrete chemicals via ducts): salivary glands, liver, gallbladder,
pancreas.
From the textbook (not on slides)
• There are three pairs of salivary glands. Accessory organs connect to the canal through
ducts (thin tubes).
• Peristalsis = alternating waves of contraction and relaxation of smooth muscle. Because it
pushes food along mechanically, you can digest even while lying down (or in zero gravity).
• Sphincters are ringlike muscular valves; the one leaving the stomach acts like a drawstring,
holding food ~2–6 hours.
• Approximate timing: pharynx → stomach takes 5–10 seconds; stomach holds food 2–6
hours; small intestine 5–6 hours; large intestine 12–24 hours; feces are stored in the
rectum before elimination.
In simple terms: This is the map of your gut. Food travels mouth → throat → esophagus →
stomach → small intestine → large intestine → out. Muscles squeeze it along (peristalsis), valves
(sphincters) control the gates, and 'helper' organs (salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas)
pour in juices to break it down.

21.5 Digestion Begins in the Oral Cavity

• Both mechanical and chemical digestion begin in the mouth.
• Chewing cuts, smashes, and grinds food, making it easier to swallow.
• The tongue tastes the food, shapes it into a ball called a bolus, and moves it toward the
pharynx.
• Teeth: incisors, canine, premolars, molars, and the 'wisdom' tooth.
From the textbook (not on slides)
• Tooth jobs: 2 incisors (biting), 1 pointed canine (much bigger/fang-like in carnivores), then
2 premolars + 3 molars (grinding and crushing). The 3rd molar (wisdom tooth) is not
present in everyone and is sometimes removed.
• Three pairs of salivary glands secrete more than 1 L of saliva per day.
• Saliva contents and their roles: mucus (protects mouth lining, lubricates food), buffers
(neutralize acids, help prevent tooth decay), antibacterial agents (kill bacteria), and the
enzyme amylase (begins starch digestion, breaking it into the disaccharide maltose).
 In simple terms: Your mouth starts digestion two ways: teeth physically break food up, and
saliva (with the enzyme amylase) chemically starts breaking down starch. The tongue rolls it into a
soft ball (bolus) and pushes it back to be swallowed.

21.6 After Swallowing, Peristalsis Moves Food to the Stomach

• The pharynx (throat) opens to two passageways:
[Link] esophagus (part of the digestive system), and
[Link] trachea / windpipe (part of the respiratory system).
• The swallowing reflex moves food into the esophagus and keeps it out of the trachea.
• Three steps: (1) before swallowing — esophageal sphincter contracted, epiglottis up; (2)
swallowing reflex — sphincter relaxed, epiglottis down, larynx up; (3) swallowing completed
— sphincter contracted, epiglottis up again.
• Moving through the esophagus: the sphincter is contracted, then muscles contract above
the bolus (squeezing it down) while muscles below relax to open the passageway, pushing
the bolus to the stomach.
From the textbook (not on slides)
• The epiglottis is a door-like flap of cartilage. During swallowing the larynx moves up, tipping
the epiglottis over the trachea like a crossing guard so food goes down the esophagus. The
bobbing you feel is your Adam's apple.
• The esophagus muscles at the top are under voluntary control (you start the swallow); the
rest take over involuntarily.
• Structure–function of the esophagus: elastic connective tissue stretches around the bolus;
circular + longitudinal smooth muscle layers perform peristalsis; a stratified epithelium
replaces cells scraped off during swallowing.
• Esophagus length varies by species — short in fishes (no lungs to bypass), very long in
giraffes.
• When food 'goes down the wrong pipe,' it enters the trachea, triggering a strong cough
reflex.
In simple terms: After you swallow, a flap (epiglottis) covers the windpipe so food doesn't choke
you, and muscle waves (peristalsis) squeeze the food ball down the esophagus into the stomach
— no gravity needed.

21.7 Connection: The Heimlich Maneuver Can Save Lives

• The Heimlich maneuver involves a forceful elevation of the diaphragm, which pushes air
into the trachea and can dislodge food stuck in the pharynx or trachea during choking.
• Brain damage or death can occur within minutes if no airway is open.
From the textbook (not on slides)
• Choking can happen from eating too fast, not chewing enough, or (in young children)
swallowing an object too big for the esophagus, blocking the pharynx or trachea.
• It was invented by Dr. Henry Heimlich in the 1970s.
• How to perform it: stand behind the person, wrap your arms around their waist, make a fist
and place it against the upper abdomen below the rib cage, cover it with your other hand,
and give a quick upward thrust. This elevates the diaphragm and pushes air out of the
lungs (like forcing a spitball through a straw). Repeat until the object is expelled. You can
self-administer using your own fist or a chair back.
• What dislodges the food: the pressure of air being expelled from the lungs.
 In simple terms: If someone is choking, a sharp upward push under the ribs forces air out of
their lungs, popping the stuck food out of the airway. Brains can't survive long without air, so it has
to be done fast.

21.8 The Stomach Stores Food and Breaks It Down with Acid and Enzymes
• The stomach secretes gastric juice, made up of a protein-digesting enzyme, mucus, and
strong acid.
– Pepsinogen and HCl are secreted in the stomach.
– HCl converts some pepsinogen to pepsin.
– Pepsin in gastric juice begins to digest protein.
From the textbook (not on slides)
• The stomach stretches to hold ~2 L of food and drink — which is why you don't have to eat
constantly.
• Gastric juice has a pH of about 2 (acidic enough to dissolve iron nails and kill most
microbes). The acid breaks apart food cells and denatures (unravels) proteins.
• Three gastric gland cell types: mucous cells (secrete mucus that protects the lining),
parietal cells (secrete H+ and Cl– that form HCl), and chief cells (secrete pepsinogen, the
inactive form of pepsin).
• Pepsin activation is positive feedback: (1) pepsinogen + HCl are secreted, (2) HCl converts
some pepsinogen to pepsin, (3) pepsin then activates more pepsinogen — a chain
reaction. Pepsin is unusual because it works best in acidic conditions.
• The stomach protects itself by secreting pepsin inactive (as pepsinogen), coating itself with
mucus, and replacing its entire lining about every 3 days by mitosis.
• Regulation by nerves + hormones: seeing/smelling/tasting food signals the brain to
stimulate the glands; food stretching the stomach releases the hormone gastrin, which
travels in the blood back to the stomach to boost gastric juice (up to 3 L/day).
• Negative feedback: when contents get too acidic, gastrin release is inhibited, so less
gastric juice is made.
• The stomach contracts about every 20 seconds (felt as hunger pangs when empty). Food +
pepsin becomes a soupy, acidic mixture called chyme, released into the small intestine a
squirt at a time. The stomach empties in 2–6 hours; 'growling' is contractions of the empty
stomach.
In simple terms: The stomach is a stretchy acid bag. Strong acid (pH ~2) kills germs and unfolds
proteins, and the enzyme pepsin starts digesting protein. It's made inactive at first (pepsinogen)
plus protected by mucus so it doesn't digest the stomach itself. Hormones (gastrin) and nerves
turn the juice on and off. The result is a soupy mix called chyme.

21.9 Connection: Digestive Ailments — Acid Reflux and Gastric Ulcers

• Acid reflux is backflow of chyme from the stomach into the esophagus, causing the feeling
of heartburn.
• GERD (gastroesophageal reflux disease) results from frequent and severe acid reflux that
harms the esophagus lining.
• Gastric ulcers are open sores in the lining of the stomach.
• Bacterial infections by Helicobacter pylori in the stomach and duodenum can produce
ulcers.
• Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2005 — Barry J. Marshall & J. Robin Warren, for
discovering H. pylori and its role in gastritis and peptic ulcer disease. Marshall (since
 human testing was barred) drank the bacteria, developed ulcers within days, treated them
with antibiotics, and won the Nobel Prize.
• Figure 21.9: in people infected with H. pylori, the bacterium (phylum Proteobacteria)
dominates the stomach microbiome, nearly wiping out other species.
From the textbook (not on slides)
• GERD management (textbook): stop smoking, avoid alcohol, lose weight, eat small meals,
don't lie down for 2–3 hours after eating, and raise the head of the bed. Medications include
antacids and acid-blockers (e.g., Pepcid AC, Prilosec); surgery to strengthen the lower
esophageal sphincter is a last option.
• Ulcer symptoms: gnawing pain in the upper abdomen, often a few hours after eating. Until
1982, doctors wrongly blamed stress/excess acid.
• H. pylori is acid-tolerant and was eventually found in ~90% of ulcer and gastritis cases.
• How the bacteria cause ulcers: H. pylori burrows beneath the mucus and releases harmful
chemicals, stripping protective mucus and damaging lining cells. White blood cells arrive
(gastritis). Ulcers form when pepsin + HCl destroy cells faster than they regenerate; the
wall can eventually perforate, risking internal bleeding or abdominal infection.
• Treatment: antibiotics + bismuth (the active ingredient in Pepto-Bismol) to kill the bacteria
and promote healing.
• Not all stomach bacteria are harmful — most gut bacteria are mutualistic (they make
vitamins and shape the intestinal lining; they get nutrients and a stable home). The human
gut microbiome has 400+ species.
In simple terms: Stomach acid leaking up = heartburn; if it's constant and damaging, that's
GERD. Sores in the stomach lining are ulcers, and most are caused by the acid-tolerant
bacterium H. pylori — not stress. Antibiotics cure them. Marshall famously proved it by drinking
the bacteria himself.

21.10 The Small Intestine: Major Organ of Chemical Digestion & Absorption
• Enzymes from the pancreas and from cells of the intestinal wall digest food molecules.
• Bile, made in the liver and stored in the gallbladder, emulsifies fat so enzymes can attack it.
• Folds of the intestinal lining and finger-like villi (with microscopic microvilli) increase the
surface area for nutrients to move into capillaries and lymph vessels.
• Chyme from the stomach mixes with bile, pancreatic juice, and intestinal enzymes in the
duodenum.
Enzymatic digestion in the small intestine (slide table):
Nutrient Step 1 Step 2 Final products
Carbohydrates: Pancreatic amylase → Maltase, sucrase, Monosaccharides
Polysaccharides maltose (and other lactase, etc.
disaccharides)
Proteins: Polypeptides Trypsin, chymotrypsin → Various peptidases Amino acids
smaller polypeptides
Nucleic acids: DNA and Nucleases → nucleotides Other enzymes Nitrogenous bases, sugars,
RNA phosphates
Fats: Fat globules Bile salts → fat droplets Lipase Fatty acids and glycerol
• Intestinal wall structure: muscle layers surround large circular folds covered in villi; villi are
made of epithelial cells around blood capillaries and lymph vessels; microvilli absorb
nutrients into the bloodstream and lymph vessels.
From the textbook (not on slides)
 • The small intestine is over 6 m (20 ft) long but only ~2.5 cm wide — the longest organ of
the alimentary canal and the master organ for digestion and absorption.
• The duodenum is the first ~25 cm, where chyme mixes with juices from the pancreas, liver,
gallbladder, and intestinal gland cells.
• Pancreatic juice = digestive enzymes + an alkaline solution that neutralizes the acidity of
chyme. (The pancreas also makes blood-glucose hormones — Chapter 26.)
• Bile contains bile salts, which act as detergents/emulsifiers, breaking fat into small droplets.
The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile; duodenal hormones trigger its release.
• Gallstones form when bile crystallizes; they can block the gallbladder or its ducts and may
require surgical removal (the liver still makes bile afterward).
• Lactose intolerance: undigested lactose passes to the large intestine, where prokaryotes
consume it and release gases (e.g., methane), causing bloating.
• Enzyme 'teams' work faster together — trypsin/chymotrypsin cut polypeptides, then
peptidases trim one amino acid at a time.
• Surface area of the small-intestine lining is huge — roughly 300 m² (about a tennis court)
— an evolutionary adaptation that speeds nutrient absorption.
• Absorption: amino acids and sugars pass into capillaries (diffusion or active transport) →
blood → liver. Fatty acids and glycerol are reassembled into fats, coated with protein, and
sent into lymph vessels, then to the blood.
• After the duodenum, the jejunum and ileum are the main absorption sites. Food molecules
officially 'enter the body' when absorbed into the epithelial cells lining the villi.
In simple terms: The small intestine finishes the job. The pancreas adds enzymes, the
liver/gallbladder add bile to break up fat, and a team of enzymes turns carbs → sugars, proteins
→ amino acids, fats → fatty acids + glycerol. Its huge folded, villi-covered surface (tennis-court
sized) then soaks up the nutrients into the blood and lymph.

21.11 The Liver Processes and Detoxifies Blood from the Intestines
• Capillaries from the small and large intestines converge into veins that lead into the hepatic
portal vein and then into the liver.
• The liver regulates nutrient levels in the blood, detoxifies alcohol and drugs, and
synthesizes blood proteins.
From the textbook (not on slides)
• The liver sits between the intestines and the heart, so it gets first access to absorbed
nutrients.
• It removes excess glucose and stores it as glycogen, balancing storage vs. release — a
key role in regulating metabolism.
• It synthesizes essential proteins: plasma proteins (blood clotting, osmotic balance) and
lipoproteins (transport fats and cholesterol). Excess calories are converted to fat and
stored.
• It detoxifies alcohol and drugs into inactive products excreted in urine (drug urine-tests
detect these breakdown products). Liver cells can be damaged in the process — alcohol +
acetaminophen is especially harmful.
• In short, the liver acts as the go-between for the digestive system and the circulatory
system.
In simple terms: All the nutrient-rich blood from your gut goes through the liver first. The liver
stores extra sugar, builds important blood proteins, and filters out toxins like alcohol and drugs
before the blood reaches the rest of the body.
21.12 The Large Intestine Reclaims Water and Compacts the Feces
• The large intestine has a pouch called the cecum near its junction with the small intestine;
the cecum bears a small finger-like extension, the appendix.
• Some bacteria in the colon produce vitamins.
• The large intestine absorbs these vitamins and water into the bloodstream, and helps form
firm feces, which are stored in the rectum until elimination.
• Diarrhea occurs when too little water is reclaimed; constipation occurs when too much
water is reclaimed.
From the textbook (not on slides)
• The large intestine is ~1.5 m (5 ft) long and 5 cm wide (twice the small intestine's width). A
sphincter at the T-shaped junction controls passage into the cecum.
• Humans have a small cecum. The appendix holds white blood cells (minor immune role); a
blockage can cause appendicitis, often requiring emergency surgery.
• The colon completes water reabsorption: we take in ~2 L of water and secrete ~7 L of
juices daily; >90% is reabsorbed by the small intestine and most of the rest by the colon.
• It takes ~12–24 hours for material to move through the colon. Feces are mostly indigestible
plant fiber (cellulose) plus huge numbers of bacteria. Colon bacteria such as E. coli make B
vitamins and vitamin K, absorbed into the blood.
• Feces are stored in the rectum; two rectal sphincters (one voluntary, one involuntary)
control the anus.
• Long-term antibiotics can kill the colon bacteria that make vitamin K, potentially causing a
deficiency.
In simple terms: The large intestine's main job is to reclaim water from the leftover material so
the waste becomes solid feces. Helpful colon bacteria also make some vitamins. Too little water
reabsorbed = diarrhea; too much = constipation.

21.13 Evolution Connection: Digestive Systems Relate to Diet

• The length of the digestive tract often correlates with diet.
• Herbivores may have longer alimentary canals than carnivores, plus compartments that
house cellulose-digesting microbes.
From the textbook (not on slides)
• Carnivores often have large, expandable stomachs for big, infrequent meals — a 200-kg
lion can eat 40 kg (~90 lb) of meat at once.
• Plant matter (with cell walls) is harder to digest than meat, so herbivores/omnivores have
relatively longer canals (more time + surface area). A cow's intestines are ~7× longer than
a human's.
• Animals can't make cellulose-digesting enzymes, so herbivores house mutualistic microbes
that break cellulose into sugars.
• Koala: has the longest cecum (~2 m) of any animal its size and gets nearly all its food and
water from eucalyptus leaves.
• Rabbits and rodents host cellulose-digesting bacteria in the large intestine and cecum, and
eat some of their feces to pass food through twice and recover nutrients.
• Ruminants (cattle, sheep, deer) have a four-chambered stomach with symbiotic microbes;
they regurgitate and 're-chew the cud,' and even digest the microbes for nutrients.
In simple terms: You can often guess an animal's diet from its gut. Meat is easy to digest, so
carnivores have shorter guts (but big stomachs). Plants are hard to digest, so herbivores have
longer guts and special chambers full of microbes that break down cellulose for them.
Part 3 — Nutrition
21.14 An Animal's Diet Must Provide Sufficient Energy
• The diet must provide chemical energy (measured in kilocalories; 1 kcal = 1,000 calories),
raw materials for biosynthesis, and essential nutrients.
• Metabolic rate — the rate of energy consumption — includes the basal metabolic rate
(BMR) plus the energy used for other activities.
From the textbook (not on slides)
• Absorbed food molecules serve three needs: (1) chemical energy for cellular work, (2)
building blocks for macromolecules, (3) essential nutrients for health.
• Cellular respiration makes ATP by oxidizing food molecules. Fats are energy-rich — a
gram of fat yields more than twice the energy of a gram of carbohydrate or protein.
• 1 calorie raises 1 g of water by 1°C. Food 'Calories' (capital C) are actually kilocalories.
• BMR is the energy a resting animal needs for basic processes (cell maintenance,
breathing, heartbeat, body temperature). Human BMR averages ~1,300–1,500 kcal/day
(females) and ~1,600–1,800 kcal/day (males); about 60% is lost as heat.
• Metabolic rate also depends on activity level, body size, age, stress, and heredity.
• Excess energy is stored as glycogen (in liver and muscles — about a day's supply, which is
why athletes 'carbo-load') and as fat. About 0.3 kg of body fat can supply a day's needs, so
most healthy people have weeks of fat reserves.
In simple terms: Food is fuel, measured in Calories (kcal). Your body burns a baseline amount
just staying alive (BMR), and more when you're active. Leftover energy gets stored — first as
glycogen, then as fat.

21.15 An Animal's Diet Must Supply Essential Nutrients

• Essential nutrients are substances an animal requires but cannot assemble from simple
organic molecules.
– Essential fatty acids (e.g., linoleic acid) are used to make phospholipids of cell
membranes, and are found in seeds, grains, and vegetables.
– Essential amino acids are used to make proteins, and are found in meats, eggs, milk,
and cheese.
• A vegetarian can get all essential amino acids by combining foods — e.g., corn + beans (a
grain + a legume), as in hummus (garbanzo beans) with pita (wheat).
From the textbook (not on slides)
• The four classes of essential nutrients are essential fatty acids, essential amino acids,
vitamins, and minerals. Some are essential only for certain species (e.g., vitamin C is
essential for humans and other primates, but most animals make their own).
• Essential fatty acids (like linoleic acid, an omega-6) are made by plants, so plant foods
supply plenty and deficiencies are rare. Alpha-linolenic acid comes from seed oils (canola,
flax).
• Of the 20 amino acids, adults can make 12; 8 are essential (infants need a 9th, histidine).
Lacking even one impairs protein synthesis.
• 'Complete' proteins (meat, eggs, milk, cheese) supply all essential amino acids; most plant
proteins are 'incomplete.' Vegetarians combine plant proteins — a legume + a grain (rice &
beans, peanut butter sandwiches, hummus & pita) provides the right balance.
• Textbook question answer: beans and wheat together provide all the essential amino acids.
 In simple terms: Some nutrients your body simply can't make, so you must eat them: certain
fatty acids and certain amino acids (plus vitamins and minerals). Meat/eggs/dairy give all the
essential amino acids; vegetarians get them by mixing a legume with a grain (like beans + rice).

21.16 A Proper Human Diet Must Include Sufficient Vitamins and Minerals
• A vitamin is an organic molecule required in very small amounts; most function as
coenzymes.
• Minerals are inorganic nutrients, required in small amounts, that play a variety of roles.
• A varied diet usually meets the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) for these
nutrients.
Vitamin requirements (slide/textbook Table 21.16):
Vitamin Major dietary sources Key facts
B1 (thiamine) Pork, legumes, peanuts, whole Refined grains lack it; deficiency causes
grains beriberi
B2 (riboflavin) Dairy, organ meats, enriched grains, Deficiency causes photophobia and skin
vegetables cracks
B3 (niacin) Nuts, meats, fish, grains High doses lower cholesterol; too little causes
pellagra
B5 (pantothenic acid) Meats, dairy, whole grains, fruits, Part of coenzyme A; deficiency rare (can
vegetables cause fatigue)
B6 (pyridoxine) Meats, vegetables, whole grains, Coenzyme in amino acid metabolism;
milk, legumes deficiency rare
B7 (biotin) Legumes, vegetables, meats, milk, Usually supplied by intestinal bacteria
egg yolks
B9 (folic acid) Green vegetables, oranges, nuts, Cuts risk of some birth defects in half
legumes, grains (pregnancy)
B12 (cobalamin) Animal products: meats, eggs, dairy Vegans must watch intake; Crohn's can
cause deficiency
C (ascorbic acid) Citrus, broccoli, tomatoes, peppers, Deficiency causes scurvy
strawberries
A (retinol) Dark green/orange vegetables & Visual pigments; too little = vision loss, too
fruits, dairy much = toxic
D Fortified dairy, egg yolk Made in skin via sunlight; aids Ca absorption;
too little = rickets
E (tocopherol) Leafy greens, vegetable oils, nuts, Antioxidant; deficiency rare
seeds, wheat germ
K Green vegetables, tea; also made by Blood clotting; antibiotics/newborns may be
colon bacteria deficient
Mineral requirements (slide/textbook Table 21.16):
Mineral Sources Key facts
Calcium (Ca) Dairy, dark green vegetables, Bones/teeth, clotting, nerve & muscle; deficiency
legumes → osteoporosis
Phosphorus (P) Dairy, meats, grains Component of ATP and nucleic acids
Sulfur (S) Proteins from many sources Needed for protein synthesis
Potassium (K) Meats, dairy, fruits, vegetables, Nerve function; too little → weakness/paralysis
grains
 Chlorine (Cl) Table salt Deficiency → muscle cramps
Sodium (Na) Table salt Water balance; overconsumption → high BP,
some cancers
Magnesium (Mg) Whole grains, leafy greens Enzyme cofactor; deficiency impairs the nervous
system
Iron (Fe) Meats, eggs, legumes, grains, leafy Part of hemoglobin; deficiency → anemia
greens
Fluorine (F) Drinking water, tea, seafood Helps prevent tooth decay
Iodine (I) Seafood, iodized salt Part of thyroid hormones; too little → goiter
Trace minerals: chromium, cobalt, copper, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, zinc.
Recommended Dietary Allowances — Male (slide table):
Age 9–13 15–18 19–24 25–50 51+
Calories 2500 kcal 3000 kcal 2900 kcal 2900 kcal 2300 kcal
Protein 45 g 59 g 58 g 63 g 63 g
Calcium 1300 mg 1300 mg 1000 mg 1000 mg 1200 mg
Iron 12 mg 12 mg 10 mg 10 mg 10 mg
Sodium 500 mg 500 mg 500 mg 500 mg 500 mg
Vitamin A 2600 IU 2600 IU 2600 IU 2600 IU 2600 IU
Vitamin C 50 mg 60 mg 60 mg 60 mg 60 mg
Vitamin D 5 µg 5 µg 5 µg 5 µg 10 µg

From the textbook (not on slides)

• Vitamins are needed in tiny amounts (~0.01–100 mg/day); there are 13 essential ones, split
into water-soluble (B vitamins + C) and fat-soluble (A, D, E, K).
• Water-soluble: many B vitamins act as coenzymes; vitamin C builds connective tissue.
Excess is eliminated in urine.
• Fat-soluble: vitamin A deficiency (common on rice-only diets) can cause blindness; vitamin
D can be made in skin from sunlight. Excess fat-soluble vitamins accumulate in body fat
and can be toxic.
• Minerals are needed from <1 mg up to ~2,500 mg/day; the first seven (Ca, P, S, K, Cl, Na,
Mg) are needed in larger amounts (>200 mg/day).
• Iodine deficiency is the world's leading cause of preventable developmental disabilities.
Most people get far more sodium than they need.
• Overdose risks: niacin → liver damage; large vitamin C → GI upset; excess iron → liver
damage. Still, most vitamin/mineral problems come from deficiencies, not overdoses.
In simple terms: Vitamins (organic) and minerals (inorganic) are needed in tiny amounts but are
vital — many vitamins help enzymes work. A varied diet usually covers your needs (the RDA). B
and C are water-soluble (extra is peed out); A, D, E, K are fat-soluble (extra is stored and can
build up to toxic levels).

21.17 Connection: Food Labels Provide Nutritional Information

• Food labels indicate:
– serving size,
– calories per serving,
– amounts of selected nutrients per serving and as a percentage of daily value, and
 – recommendations for daily limits of selected nutrients.
From the textbook (not on slides)
• The FDA requires two blocks: an ingredients list (greatest to least by weight) and the
nutrient block.
• % Daily Value is based on a 2,000-kcal diet — adjust it to your actual serving (e.g., double
everything for two slices of bread).
• 2018 label changes: Calories and serving size printed more prominently, updated serving
sizes to reflect real eating habits, and 'Added Sugars' now listed separately.
• Example targets on a 2,000-kcal diet: at least 25 g dietary fiber and less than 200 kcal of
added sugars. Remember the recommendations are one-size-fits-all guidelines.
• Worked example: if a serving has 37 g total carbohydrate with 12 g total sugars (of which
10 g are added), the natural sugars = 12 − 10 = 2 g.
In simple terms: Food labels tell you the serving size, the calories, and how much of each
nutrient is in one serving (as a % of a 2,000-Calorie daily target). The newer labels also break out
added sugars.

21.18 Connection: Dietary Deficiencies Can Have a Number of Causes

• Malnutrition — a diet insufficient in nutrients or calories — can cause significant health
problems.
• Protein deficiency is the most common cause of malnutrition worldwide.
From the textbook (not on slides)
• Malnutrition can come from inadequate intake or from disease (metabolic or digestive
abnormalities).
• More than 800 million people face hunger; undernutrition (too few calories) often follows
crises like drought, war, or poverty.
• Severe protein deficiency in children causes kwashiorkor (from a Ghanaian word for
'rejected one'), often when a child is weaned onto a starchy diet; it impairs physical and
mental development.
• Undernutrition can also be self-inflicted through eating disorders — anorexia nervosa (self-
starvation driven by fear of weight gain) and bulimia (binge eating followed by purging);
both can cause serious health problems.
• A person can be both malnourished and obese — e.g., on a junk-food diet that is high in
calories but low in nutrients.
In simple terms: Malnutrition means your diet is missing enough calories or nutrients.
Worldwide, the most common form is too little protein (causing kwashiorkor in children).
Importantly, malnutrition isn't only about too little food — you can be overfed yet still lack key
nutrients.

21.19 Evolution Connection: Obesity May Reflect Our Evolutionary Past

• Obesity is defined as a too-high body mass index (BMI), a ratio of weight to height.
• BMI categories: underweight (<18.5), normal (18.5–24.9), overweight (25.0–29.9), obese
(30.0–39.9), extremely obese (>40.0).
• Obesity is linked to a lack of exercise and an abundance of fattening foods, and may partly
stem from an evolutionary advantage of fat hoarding.
• The hormone leptin is produced by adipose (fat) cells and suppresses appetite.
• Mice that inherit a defect in the leptin gene become very obese.
 • Obese children with a mutant leptin gene lose weight after leptin treatments — but
relatively few obese people have such deficiencies.
From the textbook (not on slides)
• About one-third of Americans are obese and another third are overweight. Obesity
contributes to type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and colon/breast cancer, and is a
factor in ~300,000 U.S. deaths per year.
• Inheritance plays a role; dozens of weight-regulating hormone genes have been identified,
but the system's complexity has made effective drugs hard to develop.
• Leptin is a long-term appetite regulator: more fat → more leptin → brain suppresses
appetite; less fat → less leptin → appetite rises. Leptin-deficient mice can be treated with
leptin injections.
• Key point: most obese humans actually have HIGH leptin levels (since fat makes leptin), so
the appetite-suppressing mechanism doesn't function properly in some people.
• Evolutionary explanation: our hunter-gatherer ancestors lived feast-or-famine, so genes
that promoted fat storage during feasts helped survival during famines — a liability today
with constant food access.
In simple terms: Obesity (a high BMI) raises disease risk. The hormone leptin normally tells your
brain you've eaten enough, but in most obese people the brain stops responding to it even though
levels are high. Our bodies evolved to hoard fat for famines — useful long ago, harmful now that
food is always available.

21.20 Scientific Thinking: Testing Weight Loss Claims

• Epidemiology relates diets to health characteristics in populations; controlled experiments
can identify the effects of specific diet plans.
• A 2011 study measured the BMI of 4,451 healthy Canadian adults and tracked their diet by
daily self-reporting.
• Result: the more carbohydrates consumed, the lower the risk of obesity.
• Crucial caution: scientists must differentiate correlation from causation.
Carbohydrate intake and obesity (Table 21.20):
Ranking by carbs Bottom quartile Second Third quartile Top quartile
quartile
Carbs consumed (g/day) 179 234 269 319
Total calories (kcal/day) 2,214 2,313 2,303 2,140
% overweight or obese (BMI ≥ 25) 65% 54% 51% 51%
• A 2009 Harvard School of Public Health study assigned 811 overweight adults to several
diets that varied in fat/protein/carbohydrate but had the same total calories.
• After two years: (1) every group lost a moderate amount of weight, and (2) every group lost
a similar amount.
• Conclusion: cutting calories is what causes weight loss — not cutting carbs, fats, or protein
specifically.
From the textbook (not on slides)
• Low-carb diets have surged in popularity — Americans spend as much as $15 billion/year
on low-carb aids and foods.
• In the 2011 epidemiological study, the lowest-carb group had the highest obesity rate; note
they also consumed the most total calories. The highest-carb group consumed the fewest
total calories and had the lowest obesity — which reconciles the two studies.
 • Correlation vs. causation example: 'low-carb intake correlates with greater obesity risk' is a
correlation; 'low-carb diets cause weight gain' is a (different, stronger) causal claim that the
data do not support.
• There were no statistically significant differences between the 2009 diet groups in weight
lost.
• Bottom line: to lose weight, eat less and exercise more.
In simple terms: This section teaches how to judge diet claims. Population studies can show a
link (correlation) but not prove cause. A controlled experiment showed that as long as total
calories were the same, it didn't matter whether the calories came from carbs, fat, or protein —
everyone lost similar weight. The takeaway: calories matter most. Correlation ≠ causation.

21.21 Connection: Diet, Cardiovascular Disease, and Cancer

• Two main types of cholesterol occur in the blood:
1. Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) correlate with blocked blood vessels, high blood pressure,
and heart attacks ('bad' cholesterol).
2. High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) may decrease the risk of vessel blockage, because they
carry excess cholesterol to the liver to be broken down ('good' cholesterol).
• The ratio of HDLs to LDLs is influenced by diet.
• The relationship between food and health is complex.
• The American Cancer Society (ACS) says following its dietary guidelines plus physical
activity can help lower cancer risk.
ACS Dietary Guidelines for Reducing Cancer Risk (Table 21.21):
– Maintain a healthy weight throughout life.
– Eat five or more servings of a variety of fruits and vegetables daily.
– Choose whole grains over processed (refined) grains.
– Limit consumption of processed and red meats.
– If you drink alcohol, limit it to one or two drinks a day (1 drink = 12 oz beer, 5 oz wine,
or 1.5 oz spirits).
From the textbook (not on slides)
• A diet high in saturated fat raises blood cholesterol, which is linked to cardiovascular
disease. Cholesterol travels bound to protein in lipoprotein particles (LDL and HDL).
• Raise 'good' HDL: exercise more and don't smoke. Lower 'bad' LDL: avoid saturated fats
(eggs, full-fat dairy, most meats) and hydrogenated oils (which create trans fats).
• Unsaturated fats (fatty fish like salmon, nuts, liquid vegetable oils) lower LDL and raise
HDL, and supply vitamin E and omega-3 fatty acids that may protect the heart.
• Diet and cancer: high fat/carb diets may relate to breast cancer; saturated fat/red meat to
colon and prostate cancer. Antioxidant-rich foods (berries, beans, nuts, dried fruit, tea, red
wine, dark chocolate) may help, though the link is still debated.
• Good nutrition studies are hard: damaging experiments are unethical and self-reported
intake is unreliable. The 'French paradox' (high-fat diet + wine, yet lower obesity/heart
disease) is explained by smaller portions, fresher foods, and infrequent snacking.
• Goal for cardiovascular health: decrease your LDLs and increase your HDLs.
In simple terms: Cholesterol rides in two carriers: LDL ('bad,' clogs arteries) and HDL ('good,'
clears cholesterol to the liver). To protect your heart, lower LDL (avoid saturated/trans fats) and
raise HDL (exercise, don't smoke, eat unsaturated fats). A plant-rich diet also helps lower cancer
risk.
Exam Quick-Reference
The journey of food (in order)
Mouth (chewing + amylase) → Pharynx → Esophagus (peristalsis) → Stomach (HCl + pepsin
→ chyme) → Small intestine / duodenum (pancreatic enzymes + bile; villi absorb) → Large
intestine / colon (reabsorbs water; bacteria make vitamins) → Rectum → Anus.

Accessory organs and what they add

• Salivary glands → saliva (amylase, mucus, buffers, antibacterials).
• Liver → makes bile; regulates nutrients; detoxifies alcohol/drugs.
• Gallbladder → stores and concentrates bile.
• Pancreas → pancreatic juice (enzymes + alkaline buffer); blood-glucose hormones.

Enzyme cheat-sheet
Nutrient Enzymes End products
Starch / carbs Amylase (mouth + pancreas), Monosaccharides (e.g., glucose)
maltase, sucrase, lactase
Protein Pepsin (stomach), trypsin, Amino acids
chymotrypsin, peptidases
Nucleic acids Nucleases + other enzymes Bases, sugars, phosphates
Fat Bile salts (emulsify) + lipase Fatty acids + glycerol

Key terms to know

• Peristalsis — muscle waves that push food along the canal.
• Sphincter — ringlike valve controlling passage between regions.
• Bolus — chewed ball of food; Chyme — acidic soupy mix leaving the stomach.
• Villi & microvilli — projections that increase absorption surface area (~300 m²).
• Gastric juice — HCl + mucus + pepsinogen; pH ~2.
• Gastrin — hormone that boosts gastric juice; positive feedback activates pepsin; negative
feedback shuts gastrin off.
• Essential nutrients — fatty acids, amino acids, vitamins, minerals you must eat.
• BMR — baseline energy a resting body needs; Metabolic rate = BMR + activity.
• Leptin — fat-cell hormone that suppresses appetite.
• LDL ('bad') vs. HDL ('good') cholesterol.
• Correlation ≠ causation — a recurring scientific-thinking theme in this chapter.

Common exam 'gotchas'

• Sponges = ONLY animals that digest entirely in food vacuoles.
• Pepsin is unusual — it works best in ACIDIC conditions and is secreted INACTIVE
(pepsinogen).
• Most obese people have HIGH leptin (not low) — the brain stops responding to it.
• In the studies, total CALORIES drive weight loss — not the carb/fat/protein source.
• Bile emulsifies fat but is NOT an enzyme (it's made in the liver, stored in the gallbladder).
• Antibiotics can cause vitamin K deficiency by killing colon bacteria.