Bachelor of Education

(Curriculum Studies)

Progressive Teaching
Methods

Module BECS 202

Authors: Richard Bukaliya
Master of Education (EAPPS) (ZOU)
Bachelor of Education (EAPPS) (UZ)
Certificate in Education (UZ)
Higher Diploma in Human Resources Management (IPMZ)
Diploma in Personnel Management (IPMZ)

Rita Kasowe
Master of Education (ZOU)
Bachelor of Education (UZ)
Certificate in Education (UZ)
Certificate in Introduction to Personnel Management (IPMZ)

Barnabas Muyengwa
Master of Education (UZ)
Bachelor of Education (UZ)
Certificate in Education (UZ)

Mercy Kurebwa
Master of Education (ZOU)
Bachelor of Education (UZ)
Certificate in Education (UZ)

Content Reviewer: Barbra Mapuranga

MSc in Special Education (ZOU)
BSc Special Education (ZOU)
Diploma in Education (UZ)

Editor: Daina Mupunga

Master of Arts in Distance Education (MADE) IGNOU
Postgraduate Diploma in Distance Education (PGDDE) IGNOU
Grad. C.E. (UZ)
B.A. General (UZ)
Published by: The Zimbabwe Open University

P.O. Box MP1119

Mount Pleasant

Harare, ZIMBABWE

The Zimbabwe Open University is a distance teaching and open learning

institution.

Year: 2012

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publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,
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recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the Zimbabwe
Open University.
Forewor d To the student
The demand for skills and knowledge and
the requirement to adjust and change with
comprise academics, technologists and
administrators of varied backgrounds,
changing technology, places on us a need training, skills, experiences and personal
to learn continually throughout life. As all interests. The combination of all these
people need an education of one form or qualities inevitably facilitates the
another, it has been found that production of learning materials that teach
conventional education institutions cannot successfully any student, anywhere and far
cope with the demand for education of removed from the tutor in space and time.
this magnitude. It has, however, been We emphasize that our learning materials
discovered that distance education and should enable you to solve both work-
open learning, now also exploiting e- related problems and other life challenges.
learning technology, itself an offshoot of
e-commerce, has become the most To avoid stereotyping and professional
effective way of transmitting these narrowness, our teams of learning materials
appropriate skills and knowledge producers come from different universities
required for national and international in and outside Zimbabwe, and from
development. Commerce and Industry. This openness
enables ZOU to produce materials that
Since attainment of independence in have a long shelf life and are sufficiently
1980, the Zimbabwe Government has comprehensive to cater for the needs of
spearheaded the development of distance all of you, our learners in different walks
education and open learning at tertiary of life. You, the learner, have a large
level, resulting in the establishment of the number of optional courses to choose from
Zimbabwe Open University (ZOU) on 1 so that the knowledge and skills
March, 1999. developed suit the career path that you
choose. Thus, we strive to tailor-make
ZOU is the first, leading, and currently the the learning materials so that they can suit
your personal and professional needs. In
only university in Zimbabwe entirely
developing the ZOU learning materials, we
dedicated to teaching by distance
are guided by the desire to provide you,
education and open learning. We are
the learner, with all the knowledge and skill
determined to maintain our leading
that will make you a better performer all
position by both satisfying our clients and
round, be this at certificate, diploma,
maintaining high academic standards. To undergraduate or postgraduate level. We
achieve the leading position, we have aim for products that will settle comfortably
adopted the course team approach to in the global village and competing
producing the varied learning materials that successfully with anyone. Our target is,
will holistically shape you, the learner to therefore, to satisfy your quest for
be an all-round performer in the field of knowledge and skills through distance
your own choice. Our course teams education and open learning
Any course or programme launched by ZOU is Having worked as best we can to prepare your
conceived from the cross-pollination of ideas from learning path, hopefully like John the Baptist
consumers of the product, chief among whom are prepared for the coming of Jesus Christ, it is my
you, the students and your employers. We consult hope as your Vice Chancellor that all of you, will
you and listen to your critical analysis of the experience unimpeded success in your educational
concepts and how they are presented. We also endeavours. We, on our part, shall continually
consult other academics from universities the world strive to improve the learning materials through
over and other international bodies whose evaluation, transformation of delivery
reputation in distance education and open learning methodologies, adjustments and sometimes
is of a very high calibre. We carry out pilot studies complete overhauls of both the materials and
of the course outlines, the content and the organizational structures and culture that are
programme component. We are only too glad to central to providing you with the high quality
subject our learning materials to academic and education that you deserve. Note that your needs,
professional criticism with the hope of improving the learner ‘s needs, occupy a central position
them all the time. We are determined to continue within ZOU’s core activities.
improving by changing the learning materials to suit
the idiosyncratic needs of our learners, their Best wishes and success in your studies.
employers, research, economic circumstances,
technological development, changing times and
geographic location, in order to maintain our
leading position. We aim at giving you an
education that will work for you at any time
anywhere and in varying circumstances and that
your performance should be second to none. _____________________
Dr. Primrose Kurasha
As a progressive university that is forward looking Vice Chancellor
and determined to be a successful part of the
twenty-first century, ZOU has started to introduce
e-learning materials that will enable you, our
students, to access any source of information,
anywhere in the world through internet and to
communicate, converse, discuss and collaborate
synchronously and asynchronously, with peers and
tutors whom you may never meet in life. It is our
intention to bring the computer, email, internet chat-
rooms, whiteboards and other modern methods
of delivering learning to all the doorsteps of our
learners, wherever they may be. For all these
developments and for the latest information on
what is taking place at ZOU, visit the ZOU website
at [Link]
 The Six Hour Tutorial Session At
The Zimbabwe Open University
A s you embark on your studies with the Zimbabwe
Open University (ZOU) by open and distance
learning, we need to advise you so that you can make
This is where the six hour tutorial comes in. For it
to work, you need to know that:
· There is insufficient time for the tutor to
the best use of the learning materials, your time and
the tutors who are based at your regional office. lecture you
· Any ideas that you discuss in the tutorial,
The most important point that you need to note is originate from your experience as you
that in distance education and open learning, there work on the materials. All the issues
are no lectures like those found in conventional raised above are a good source of topics
universities. Instead, you have learning packages that (as they pertain to your learning) for
may comprise written modules, tapes, CDs, DVDs discussion during the tutorial
and other referral materials for extra reading. All these
· The answers come from you while the
including radio, television, telephone, fax and email
can be used to deliver learning to you. As such, at tutor’s task is to confirm, spur further
the ZOU, we do not expect the tutor to lecture you discussion, clarify, explain, give
when you meet him/her. We believe that that task is additional information, guide the
accomplished by the learning package that you receive discussion and help you put together full
at registration. What then is the purpose of the six answers for each question that you bring
hour tutorial for each course on offer? · You must prepare for the tutorial by
bringing all the questions and answers
At the ZOU, as at any other distance and open that you have found out on the topics to
learning university, you the student are at the centre the discussion
of learning. After you receive the learning package, · For the tutor to help you effectively, give
you study the tutorial letter and other guiding him/her the topics beforehand so that in
documents before using the learning materials. During cases where information has to be
the study, it is obvious that you will come across gathered, there is sufficient time to do
concepts/ideas that may not be that easy to understand so. If the questions can get to the tutor
or that are not so clearly explained. You may also at least two weeks before the tutorial,
come across issues that you do not agree with, that that will create enough time for thorough
actually conflict with the practice that you are familiar preparation.
with. In your discussion groups, your friends can bring
ideas that are totally different from yours and In the tutorial, you are expected and required to
arguments may begin. You may also find that an idea take part all the time through contributing in every
is not clearly explained and you remain with more way possible. You can give your views, even if
questions than answers. You need someone to help they are wrong, (many students may hold the same
you in such matters. wrong views and the discussion will help correct
 The Six Hour Tutorial Session At The Zimbabwe Open University

the errors), they still help you learn the correct thing as the tutor may dwell on matters irrelevant to the
as much as the correct ideas. You also need to be ZOU course.
open-minded, frank, inquisitive and should leave no
stone unturned as you analyze ideas and seek
clarification on any issues. It has been found that Distance education, by its nature, keeps the tutor
those who take part in tutorials actively, do better in and student separate. By introducing the six hour
assignments and examinations because their ideas are tutorial, ZOU hopes to help you come in touch with
streamlined. Taking part properly means that you the physical being, who marks your assignments,
prepare for the tutorial beforehand by putting together assesses them, guides you on preparing for writing
relevant questions and their possible answers and examinations and assignments and who runs your
those areas that cause you confusion. general academic affairs. This helps you to settle
down in your course having been advised on how
Only in cases where the information being discussed to go about your learning. Personal human contact
is not found in the learning package can the tutor is, therefore, upheld by the ZOU.
provide extra learning materials, but this should not
be the dominant feature of the six hour tutorial. As
stated, it should be rare because the information
needed for the course is found in the learning package
together with the sources to which you are referred.
Fully-fledged lectures can, therefore, be misleading

The six hour tutorials should be so structured that the

tasks for each session are very clear. Work for each
session, as much as possible, follows the structure given
below.

Session I (Two Hours)

Session I should be held at the beginning of the semester. The main aim
of this session is to guide you, the student, on how you are going to
approach the course. During the session, you will be given the overview
of the course, how to tackle the assignments, how to organize the logistics
of the course and formation of study groups that you will belong to. It is
also during this session that you will be advised on how to use your
learning materials effectively.
 The Six Hour Tutorial Session At The Zimbabwe Open University

Session II (Two Hours)

This session comes in the middle of the semester to respond to the
challenges, queries, experiences, uncertainties, and ideas that you are
facing as you go through the course. In this session, difficult areas in the
module are explained through the combined effort of the students and
the tutor. It should also give direction and feedback where you have not
done well in the first assignment as well as reinforce those areas where
performance in the first assignment is good.

Session III (Two Hours)

The final session, Session III, comes towards the end of the semester.
In this session, you polish up any areas that you still need clarification on.
Your tutor gives you feedback on the assignments so that you can use
the experience for preparation for the end of semester examination.

Note that in all the three sessions, you identify the areas
that your tutor should give help. You also take a very
important part in finding answers to the problems posed.
You are the most important part of the solutions to your
learning challenges.

Conclusion for this course, but also to prepare yourself to

contribute in the best way possible so that you
In conclusion, we should be very clear that six can maximally benefit from it. We also urge you
hours is too little for lectures and it is not to avoid forcing the tutor to lecture you.
necessary, in view of the provision of fully self-
contained learning materials in the package, to BEST WISHES IN YOUR STUDIES.
turn the little time into lectures. We, therefore,
urge you not only to attend the six hour tutorials ZOU
Contents

Overview ___________________________________________________________________ 1

Unit One: Progressive Theory of Knowledge

1.0 _______ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 5

1.1 _______ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 6
1.2 _______ Historical Evolution of Progressivism ______________________________ 6
__________ 1.2.1 Philosophy _________________________________________________ 6
__________ 1.2.2 Progressive Theory _________________________________________ 6
__________ 1.2.3 Modern Progressivism ______________________________________ 7
1.3 _______ Principles of Progressivism _______________________________________ 7
__________ 1.3.1 Society and the development of Progressive programme ________ 8
__________ 1.3.2 Individuals and groups within Progressivism thought ___________ 9
__________ Activity 1.1 _____________________________________________________ 10
1.4 _______ Progressive Theory Development ________________________________ 10
1.5 _______ Principles of John Dewey ________________________________________ 11
1.6 _______ The Constructivist Learning Theory ______________________________ 12
__________ Activity 1.2 _____________________________________________________ 14
1.7 _______ Qualities of Progressive Programmes _____________________________ 14
1.8 _______ Characteristics of Progressive Schools ____________________________ 15
1.9 _______ Assessment by Evaluation of Child’s Projects and Productions ______ 15
__________ Activity 1.3 _____________________________________________________ 15
1.10 ______ Progressive Model ______________________________________________ 16
__________ 1.10.1 Student- centered model ___________________________________ 16
__________ 1.10.2 What is educational progressivism? _________________________ 16
__________ Activity 1.4 _____________________________________________________ 18
1.4 _______ Summary ______________________________________________________ 18
__________ References _____________________________________________________ 19

Unit Two: The Progressive Curriculum

2.0 _______ Introduction ___________________________________________________ 21

2.1 _______ Objectives _____________________________________________________ 22
2.2 _______ Definition of Terms ____________________________________________ 22
__________ 2.2.1 Progressivism _____________________________________________ 22
__________ 2.2.2 Progressive curriculum _____________________________________ 23
__________ Activity 2.1 _____________________________________________________ 24
2.3 _______ Cultivating Problem Solving Skills in Learners _____________________ 24
__________ 2.3.1 What are problem solving skills? ____________________________ 24
 __________ 2.3.2 Benefits of the Problem Solving Approach ___________________ 26
2.4 _______ Strategies for Cultivating Problem Solving Skills in Learners ________ 27
__________ Activity 2.2 _____________________________________________________ 28
2.5 _______ The Role of the Teacher in Progressive Learning __________________ 28
__________ Activity 2.3 _____________________________________________________ 30
__________ Activity 2.4 _____________________________________________________ 31
2.8 _______ Integrated Learning _____________________________________________ 31
2.9 _______ Promotion of Integrated Learning ________________________________ 32
__________ 2.9.1 Holding integrated days ____________________________________ 33
__________ 2.9.2 Integrated Studies _________________________________________ 33
__________ 2.9.3 Core curriculum ___________________________________________ 34
__________ 2.9.4 Learning by topics rather than by subjects ____________________ 35
__________ Activity 2.5 _____________________________________________________ 35
2.10 ______ The Benefits of Integrated Learning ______________________________ 35
2.11 ______ Child-centred Learning __________________________________________ 36
__________ 2.11.1 The key characteristics of child-centred learning _____________ 36
__________ Activity 2.6 _____________________________________________________ 37
__________ 2.11.2 Creating child-centered learning conditions __________________ 37
__________ 2.11.3 Criticisms against child-centred learning _____________________ 38
2.12 ______ Summary ______________________________________________________ 38
__________ References _____________________________________________________ 39

Unit Three: The Progressive Teacher

3.0 _______ Introduction ___________________________________________________ 41

3.1 _______ Objectives _____________________________________________________ 42
3.2 _______ Definition of Terms ____________________________________________ 42
3.3 _______ Characteristics of a Progressive Educator _________________________ 43
__________ Activity 3.1 _____________________________________________________ 44
3.4 _______ Progressive Education __________________________________________ 44
3.5 _______ Characteristics of Progressive Education __________________________ 45
__________ Activity 3.2 _____________________________________________________ 47
3.6 _______ Selection of Subject Content _____________________________________ 47
3.7 _______ Integration of Community Service and Learning into Daily ____________
__________ Curriculum ____________________________________________________ 47
3.8 _______ Assessment of Learners _________________________________________ 48
__________ Activity 3.3 _____________________________________________________ 49
3.9 _______ Summary ______________________________________________________ 50
__________ References _____________________________________________________ 51

Unit Four: Progressive Teaching Pedagogies

4.0 _______ Introduction ___________________________________________________ 53

4.1 _______ Objectives _____________________________________________________ 54
4.2 _______ Defining Key Terms ____________________________________________ 54
__________ 4.2.1 Pedagogy _________________________________________________ 54
__________ 4.2.2 What is progressive pedagogy? ______________________________ 54
4.3 _______ What Assumptions Guide Progressive Pedagogies? ________________ 55
4.4 _______ What are the Defining Characteristics of Progressive Pedagogies? ___ 55
4.5 _______ Is there a Difference between Progressive Pedagogies and other Forms
__________ Teaching? _____________________________________________________ 55
4.6 _______ How Can the Teacher Integrate Progressive Pedagogies and __________
__________ Constructivist Teaching into the Classroom? ______________________ 56
4.7 _______ What are Some of the Effective Progressive Pedagogical Strategies? _ 57
__________ 4.7.1 Integration of community based strategies ____________________ 57
__________ 4.7.2 Usefulness of the teaching centre to pupils and the community _ 57
4.8 _______ Progressive Teaching and Development of Case studies ____________ 58
__________ 4.8.1What is a case study? _______________________________________ 58
__________ 4.8.2 Stages involved in conducting case studies ____________________ 59
__________ 4.8.3 Advantages of using the case study in progressive teaching _____ 59
__________ 4.8.4 Limitations of case studies __________________________________ 59
__________ Activity 1.1 _____________________________________________________ 60
4.9 _______ Use of Clips and Video Shows in the Classroom ___________________ 60
__________ 4.9.1 Importance of film clips and video show _____________________ 60
__________ 4.9.2 Limitations of film clips and video show ______________________ 61
4.10 ______ Use of Drama, Role Play and Art as a Strategy _____________________ 61
__________ 4.10.1 Ground rules for drama and role play ______________________ 61
__________ 4.10.2 Advantages of drama and role play _________________________ 61
4.11 ______ Group Research Project _________________________________________ 62
__________ 4.11.1 Planning for group learning activities _______________________ 63
__________ 4.11.2 Membership of groups ____________________________________ 64
__________ 4.11.3 Group management techniques _____________________________ 64
__________ 4.11.4 Advantages of group research activities in progressive pedagogy 64
__________ 4.11.5 Considerations to be made ________________________________ 65
4.12 ______ Group Activities ________________________________________________ 65
__________ 4.12.1Peer Tutoring and checking ________________________________ 65
__________ 4.12.2 Brainstorming ____________________________________________ 65
__________ 4.12.3 Supervised student practice in progressive learning. __________ 66
4.13 ______ Managing the Practice of an Intellectual Skill ______________________ 66
4.14 ______ The Plenary ____________________________________________________ 67
4.15 ______ Managing a Practical Activity _____________________________________ 67
4.16 ______ Experimental Work in Science ___________________________________ 67
__________ 4.16.1 Games and active learning methods _________________________ 67
__________ 4.16.2 The quiz _________________________________________________ 68
__________ 4.16.3 The exhibition ___________________________________________ 68
__________ 4.16.4 Modified Television/ radio games __________________________ 68
__________ 4.16.5 Treasure hunt ____________________________________________ 68
__________ 4.16.6 Spectacles ________________________________________________ 69
__________ 4.16.7 Ice- breakers _____________________________________________ 69
__________ 4.16.8 Using games in practice ____________________________________ 69
4.17 ______ Emphasis on Psycho – Social Demonstration ______________________ 69
4.18 ______ Field trips _____________________________________________________ 70
4.19 ______ Discussion _____________________________________________________ 70
__________ 4.19.1 When to use discussions __________________________________ 70
__________ Activity 4.2 _____________________________________________________ 71
__________ 4.19.2 Planning a discussion _____________________________________ 71
__________ 4.19.3 How to lead a discussion and the style. _____________________ 71
4.20 ______ Whole Class Teaching Strategy __________________________________ 72
__________ Activity 4.3 _____________________________________________________ 73
4.21 ______ Summary ______________________________________________________ 73
__________ References _____________________________________________________ 74
Unit Five: Special Needs Education Catering for Individual Needs in
the Teaching and Learning Process
5.0 _______ Introduction ___________________________________________________ 75
5.1 _______ Objectives _____________________________________________________ 76
5.2 _______ Slow Learners __________________________________________________ 76
__________ Activity 5.1 _____________________________________________________ 78
__________ 5.2.2 Causes of learning disabilities ______________________________ 78
__________ Activity 5.2 _____________________________________________________ 78
5.3 _______ Signs and Identification _________________________________________ 79
__________ Activity 5.3 _____________________________________________________ 80
5.4 _______ Educational Consideration or Strategies to be Employed During ______
__________ Instruction _____________________________________________________ 80
__________ Activity 5.4 _____________________________________________________ 81
5.5 _______ The Gifted Child _______________________________________________ 82
__________ Activity 5.5 _____________________________________________________ 83
__________ 5.5.1 Signs and identification of gifted students ____________________ 83
__________ Activity 5.6 _____________________________________________________ 83
__________ 5.5.2 Signs of giftedness _________________________________________ 83
__________ Activity 5.7 _____________________________________________________ 84
__________ 5.5.3 Strategies for teaching gifted and talented students ____________ 84
__________ Activity 5.9 _____________________________________________________ 86
__________ 5.4.4 Problems associated with giftedness _________________________ 86
__________ Activity 5.10 ____________________________________________________ 87
5.6 _______ The Physically Handicapped _____________________________________ 87
__________ Activity 5.10 ____________________________________________________ 88
__________ 5.6.1 Signs and identification _____________________________________ 88
__________ Activity 5.11 ____________________________________________________ 88
__________ 5.6.2 Strategies and educational consideration _____________________ 88
__________ Activity 5.12 ____________________________________________________ 89
5.7 _______ Records _______________________________________________________ 90
__________ 5.7.1 Slow learner ______________________________________________ 90
__________ 5.7.2 Gifted students ____________________________________________ 90
__________ Activity 5.12 ____________________________________________________ 91
5.8 _______ Summary ______________________________________________________ 91
__________ References _____________________________________________________ 92

Unit Six: The Inductive Approach in Progressive Teaching

6.0 _______ Introduction ___________________________________________________ 93

6.1 _______ Objectives _____________________________________________________ 94
6.2 _______ Definition of Terms ____________________________________________ 94
6.3 _______ The Nature of Inductive Approach to Learning ____________________ 95
6.4 _______ Types of Inductive Teaching and Learning ________________________ 96
__________ 6.4.1 Inquiry-based learning _____________________________________ 96
__________ 6.4.2 Discovery learning _________________________________________ 96
__________ 6.4.3 Problem-based learning (PBL) ______________________________ 97
__________ 6.4.4 Project-based learning _____________________________________ 97
__________ 6.4.5 Case-base teaching/learning _________________________________ 98
__________ 6.4.6 Just-in-time teaching (JiTT) _________________________________ 98
__________ Activity 6.1 _____________________________________________________ 99
 6.5 _______ The Inductive Process __________________________________________ 99
6.6 _______ The Role of the Teacher in Implementation of Inductive Approach _ 101
6.7 _______ The Place of Instructional Media and Technology ________________ 101
__________ 6.7.1 Realia ___________________________________________________ 102
__________ 6.7.2 Models __________________________________________________ 102
__________ 6.7.3 Audio aids _______________________________________________ 102
__________ Activity 6.2 ____________________________________________________ 102
6.8 _______ Organisation and Implementation of Experiments ________________ 103
__________ 6.8.1Steps and organisation of inductive process as applied in a science
__________ lesson ________________________________________________________ 104
__________ 6.8.2 Stages in inductive teaching ________________________________ 104
__________ Activity 6.3 ____________________________________________________ 106
6.9 _______ Assessment Techniques ________________________________________ 106
__________ Activity 6.4 ____________________________________________________ 106
6.10 ______ The Benefits of Implementing Inductive Approach to Learning _____ 107
6.11 ______ Possible Challenges in Implementing Inductive Approach to __________
__________ Learning ______________________________________________________ 107
__________ Activity 6.5 ____________________________________________________ 108
6.12 ______ Summary _____________________________________________________ 108
__________ References ____________________________________________________ 109

Unit Seven: Cooperative and Collaborative Learning

7.0 _______ Introduction __________________________________________________ 111
7.1 _______ Objectives ____________________________________________________ 112
7.2 _______ What are Cooperative and Collaborative Learning? _______________ 112
__________ Activity 7.1 ____________________________________________________ 113
7.3 _______ The Difference between Collaborative and Cooperative Learning __ 113
__________ Activity 7.2 ____________________________________________________ 114
7.4 _______ The Development of Cooperative and Collaborative Learning ______ 114
__________ Activity 7.3 ____________________________________________________ 115
7.5 _______ Key Principles When Using Cooperative Learning ________________ 115
7.6 _______ How to Get Started When Using Cooperative and Collaborative ______
__________ G r o u p s _______________________________________________________ 116
__________ 7.6.1 Form a question __________________________________________ 116
__________ 7.6.2 Identify goals _____________________________________________ 117
__________ 7.6.3 Create rubrics ____________________________________________ 118
__________ 7.6.4 Assign a specific assessment task ___________________________ 118
__________ 7.6.5 Reflect to adjust __________________________________________ 119
__________ Activity 7.4 ____________________________________________________ 120
7.7 _______ The Difference between Cooperative and Collaborative Learning
__________ and the Traditional Teaching Approaches ________________________ 120
__________ Activity 7.5 ____________________________________________________ 121
7.8 _______ The Benefits of Cooperative and Collaborative Learning __________ 121
__________ 7.8.1 Celebration of diversity ___________________________________ 121
__________ 7.8.2 Acknowledgment of individual differences ___________________ 122
__________ 7.8.3 Interpersonal development ________________________________ 122
__________ 7.8.4 Actively involving students in learning _______________________ 122
__________ 7.8.5 More opportunities for personal feedback __________________ 122
7.9 _______ Effective Small Group Formations Used for Different Learning _______
__________ Objectives ____________________________________________________ 122
__________ 7.10.1 Pair-share ______________________________________________ 123
__________ 7.10.2 Jigsaw (sometimes called novice/expert), for research and peer __
__________ teaching. ______________________________________________________ 124
 __________ 7.10.3 Split-class discussion (to debate a major issue) _____________ 124
__________ 7.10.4 Random groups of three __________________________________ 125
__________ 7.10.5 Ability groups, interest groups, or friendship groups ________ 125
__________ 7.10.6 Diversity groups with mixed interests, abilities, and ____________
__________ backgrounds __________________________________________________ 126
__________ Activity 7.6 ____________________________________________________ 126
__________ 7.10.7 Multi-aged groups _______________________________________ 127
__________ 7.10.8 Peer-led conferences _____________________________________ 127
7.11 ______ Use of Technology in Cooperative and Collaborative Learning _____ 128
__________ Activity 7.7 ____________________________________________________ 129
7.12 ______ Criticisms of Cooperative and Collaborative Learning _____________ 129
__________ Activity 7.10 ___________________________________________________ 131
7.13 ______ Summary _____________________________________________________ 131
__________ References ____________________________________________________ 132

Unit Eight: Reflective Teaching

8.0 _______ Introduction __________________________________________________ 133

8.1 _______ Objectives ____________________________________________________ 134
8.2 _______ Concept Definition ____________________________________________ 134
__________ 8.2.1 Reflective teaching ________________________________________ 134
__________ 8.2.2 Concept of action research ________________________________ 135
__________ 8.2.3 Problem Based Learning __________________________________ 136
8.3 _______ Process of Reflection __________________________________________ 137
__________ 8.3.1 How reflection takes place _________________________________ 139
__________ 8.3.3 Characteristics of reflective practice ________________________ 139
__________ Activity 8.1 ____________________________________________________ 141
8.4 _______ How Reflective Teaching is different from Action Research ________ 141
__________ Activity 8.2 ____________________________________________________ 142
8.5 _______ Key attributes of Action Research _______________________________ 142
__________ 8.5.1 Problem solving __________________________________________ 142
__________ 8.5.2. Reflective and cyclical _____________________________________ 143
__________ 8.5.3 Collaborative in nature ____________________________________ 143
__________ 8.5.4. Theory and practice ______________________________________ 144
__________ 8.5.5 Experimental and non-traditional __________________________ 144
8.6 _______ Advantages of Action Research __________________________________ 144
__________ 8.6.1 Empowerment to all participants ___________________________ 145
__________ 8.6.2 Use of reflection to generate models ________________________ 145
__________ 8.6.3 Cyclical approach increases the generality of the findings _____ 145
__________ 8.6.4 Flexible but rigorous ______________________________________ 146
__________ 8.6.5 Low control of the environment ____________________________ 146
__________ 8.6.6 Bridging the gap between theory, research and practice _______ 146
8.7 _______ Why is Reflective Teaching Worth Doing? _______________________ 147
8.8 _______ Suggested Procedures for Reflective Teaching ____________________ 150
__________ 8.8.1 Use of Collaborative Research _____________________________ 150
__________ 8.8.2 Making journal entries/Teachers’ diaries ____________________ 151
__________ 8.8.3 Peer observation _________________________________________ 152
__________ 8.8.4 Written accounts of experiences ___________________________ 153
__________ 8.8.5 Self-reports ______________________________________________ 153
__________ 8.8.6 Autobiographies __________________________________________ 154
__________ 8.8.7 Collaborative diary keeping ________________________________ 154
__________ 8.8.8 Audio and video recording of lessons _______________________ 155
 __________ 8.8.9 Class seating arrangements ________________________________ 156
__________ Activity 8.3 ____________________________________________________ 156
8.9 _______ Problem Based Learning (PBL) _________________________________ 157
__________ 8.9.1 Key components in Problem-Based Learning process _________ 157
process_________
__________ Activity 8.4 ____________________________________________________ 158
__________ 8.9.2 Tenets of PBL ___________________________________________ 158
__________ 8.9.3 Basic Steps of PBL _______________________________________ 159
__________ 8.9.4 Application in and effects on classrooms and similar settings __ 160
8.10 ______ Advantages of Reflective Teaching _______________________________ 161
8.11 ______ Disadvantages/Challenges Associated with Reflective Teaching _____ 162
__________ 8.11.1 Time ___________________________________________________ 162
__________ 8.11.2 Emotions _______________________________________________ 163
__________ 8.11.3 Not being naturally reflective _____________________________ 163
__________ Activity 8.5 ____________________________________________________ 163
8.13 ______ Summary _____________________________________________________ 163
__________ References ____________________________________________________ 165

Unit Nine: Assessment, Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching

9.0 _______ Introduction __________________________________________________ 167
9.1 _______ Objectives ____________________________________________________ 168
9.2 _______ Definition of Concepts _________________________________________ 168
__________ 9.2.1 Test _____________________________________________________ 168
__________ 9.2.2 Measurement ____________________________________________ 168
__________ 9.2.3 Evaluation _______________________________________________ 169
__________ 9.2.4 Assessment ______________________________________________ 169
__________ Activity 9.1 ____________________________________________________ 170
9.3 _______ Rationale for Testing, Measurement, Evaluation and Assessment ___ 170
__________ Activity 9.2 ____________________________________________________ 171
9.5 _______ Forms of Assessment __________________________________________ 171
__________ 9.5.1 Formal versus informal assessment _________________________ 172
__________ 9.5.2 Oral versus written assessments ____________________________ 172
__________ 9.5.3 Criterion versus norm referenced assessment _______________ 172
__________ 9.5.4 Ipsative assessment / self referenced assessment _____________ 173
__________ 9.5.5 Continuous assessment ____________________________________ 173
__________ 9.5.6 Assessment of learning versus assessment for learning, and ______
__________ assessment as learning _________________________________________ 173
__________ 9.5.7 Formative versus summative assessment _____________________ 174
__________ 9.5.8 Diagnostic assessment _____________________________________ 175
__________ Activity 9.3 ____________________________________________________ 175
9.6 _______ Classroom Tests _______________________________________________ 176
__________ 9.6.1 General strategies on test construction ______________________ 176
__________ 9.6.2 Types of validity __________________________________________ 176
__________ Activity 9.4 ____________________________________________________ 178
__________ 9.6.2 Types of classroom tests ___________________________________ 179
9.7 _______ Additional Measurement Techniques ____________________________ 180
__________ 9.7.1 Anecdotal records ________________________________________ 180
__________ 9.7.2 Checklists and rating scales ________________________________ 181
__________ Activity 9.6 ____________________________________________________ 182
9.7 _______ Summary _____________________________________________________ 182
__________ References ____________________________________________________ 183
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Module Overview

P rogressive teaching in the field of Education has been studied over a

considerable period of time. A number of teaching methods do exist.
However, it is our intention in this Module to introduce you to progressive
teaching methods.
Progressive Teaching Methods BECS 202

Unit 1 situates progressive theory into its proper perspective. We look at the
historical evolution of progressivism because this gives us an insight into how
this field of study has developed into what it is today. This also assists you in
appreciating the vexing questions of the origins of progressive teaching methods.

It is the purpose of Unit 2 to put into perspective the construct of Progressive

curriculum. Key concepts and issues that you encounter throughout this Unit
are defined and explained in a language which is easy to understand. From
the onset of this Unit, you should appreciate that progressivism as a philosophy,
recognises learners as the starting point for all curriculum design. All that is
needed is to emphasise the need for teacher support as children learn. In the
unit we also identify the major roles of a teacher in cultivating problem solving
skills in learners and in the creation of child-centered learning conditions. The
role of the teacher in progressive learning is also explained to some detail.

In Unit 3 we introduce you to the concept of progressive teacher. The concept

progressive teacher/educator is explained. In the Unit we also attempt to
enumerate and explain the characteristics that a progressive teacher/educator
should possess so as for progressive education to succeed. The qualities of
progressive education programmes are examined and these are linked to the
educator‘s characteristics. In order to facilitate effective selection of content,
the unit also lists the factors to consider when selecting subject content for a
particular class. Furthermore, the Unit explains the importance of integrating
of community service and learning into daily curriculum. Finally, we show
how reporting on learners‘ progress through learner assessment is vital in
progressive education.

Unit 4 introduces you to some of the concepts and strategies used in

progressive teaching. Apart from outlining current views on progressive
strategies, the rationale for using these strategies is outlined.

In Unit 5 we begin with a brief explanation of the slow learner. The terms
learning difficulty, attention memory, language, special orientation, fine motor
control and sequencing are also explained in this section. This followed signs
and identification of a student with learning disabilities. Problem areas of these
students are well explicated as well as strategies for remediation.

In Unit 6, we introduce you to the inductive approach so that you may be in a

position to vary your approaches in your instructional processes. We define
the nature of the approach, its strengths and weaknesses to enable you to
make a decision on whether or not to adopt the approach. However, it should

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2 Zimbabwe Open University
 Module Overview

be borne in mind that the inductive approach to teaching has received

acceptance from many educationists the world over.

Unit 7 is on Cooperative and Collaborative Learning. Here we focus

specifically on how this technique for using small, cooperative groups in
education can help improve learning in your class. As you will see, this is a
highly interactive teaching strategy which can be very effective if correctly
used in your lessons.

Unit 8 touches on the Reflective Teaching Model (RTM), an inquiry approach,

was introduced in an alternative preparation programme of an urban university
in the south eastern United States. In this unit we expose you to the concept
and process of reflective teaching. As a reflective practitioner you should
possess a set of attitudes towards teaching practice based upon broader
understanding of reflective practice. In the unit, we argue that reflective teaching
is a worth undertaking and thus present its advantages despite there being
some shortfalls for its use.

Unit 9 presents issues on testing, measurement, evaluation and assessment.

Teachers are required to have a clear understanding of their students’ abilities.
Knowledge of assessment, measurement and evaluation is important to you
as a teacher, to enable you to gain information about students learning progress.
In order to make a variety of classroom decisions, you need to understand
the assessment, measurement and evaluation procedures because the
processes are integral to effective instruction and learning in the schools.

We hope you will enjoy reading the Module.

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 1
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Unit One
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Progressive Theory of
Knowledge

1.0 Introduction

P rogressive teaching in the field of education has been studied over a

considerable period of time. A number of teaching methods and ideas
have also received widespread popularity throughout the last century. It is
therefore, the intention of this unit to situate progressive theory into its proper
perspective. In the unit we also look at the historical evolution of progressivism
because this gives you an insight into how this field of study has developed
into what it is today. We also assist you in appreciating the vexing questions of
the origins of progressive teaching methods.
Progressive Teaching Methods BECS 202

1.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:

 outline the historical evolution of progressive methods

 compare and contrast progressive teaching methods with other forms
of teaching methods
 show the extent to which modern teaching methods have been influenced
by the progressive theory

1.2 Historical Evolution of Progressivism

In this section, we explore the historical evolution of progressivism.
Thus, we study philosophy, progressive theory and modern
progressivism.

1.2.1 Philosophy
Progressive education is a pedagogical movement that began in the late
nineteenth century and has persisted in various forms to the present. More
recently, it has been viewed as an alternative to the test-oriented instruction.

The term “progressive” was engaged to distinguish education from the

traditional curriculum of the 19th century, which was rooted in classical
preparation for the university and strongly differentiated by socio-economic
level. By contrast, progressive education finds its roots in present experience.

While the name “progressivism” has only been around for a century, its roots
are a very old idea. This idea, in fact, was the normal way of looking at the
relationship between individuals and society.

1.2.2 Progressive Theory

Progressivism contends that the duty of mankind is to strive for the perfect
society. Man’s intellect and logic is the chief tool by which mankind achieves
the program. It is axiomatic that only a minority of people will have the intellect
and logic necessary to direct the programme of mankind. Therefore,
Progressivism fundamentally relies on elite individuals to guide progress. The
perfect society will not just happen, it must be engineered by those who are
gifted enough to lead.
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Unit 1 Progressive Theory of Knowledge

Progressives consider activating power so that a more alert individual can

manage affairs.

Under the Progressive Programme, just like Aristotle says, mankind is

essentially a political animal. In fact, the Progressive Programme can only be
achieved by political action. This means that politics –, political control – is
the fundamental work of Progressives. Without politics, without political control,
there is nothing.

For Progressives, politics is everything, the essence of human behaviour. And

it is worth any cost, any desperate measure, to maintain political control.
Under progressivism the inherent importance of individuals is necessarily
subsumed by the importance of the collective. The roots of Progressivism
were discovered within the teachings of Aristotle.

Aristotle tells us that man is innately a political animal, an animal with an inherent
propensity to gather into increasingly complex communities. The essence of
man, according to Aristotle, is society. The formation of complex societies is
what defines mankind; it is what differentiates man from the rest of the animal
kingdom. Hence, because man is defined by society, society is inherently on a
higher plane of importance than the individual. Individuals are entirely beholden
to and dependent upon and subservient to the society to which they belong.
Indeed, they are defined as individuals by their place within that society.

1.2.3 Modern Progressivism

Modern Progressivism was born as an offshoot of Darwinism based on the
idea that society and mankind could be perfected (Theodore Roosevelt,
Woodrow Wilson, Bertrand Russell, H. G. Wells, and Margaret Sanger (the
founder, as it happens, of Planned Parenthood).

Progressivism entails man’s effect on the environment, as a good way to get

the populace to give them the power they need to carry out their program.
Progressives have completely embraced the man-made global warming to be
settled science.

1.3 Principles of Progressivism

Progressivism includes a number of principles. We discuss some of
them in this section.

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Progressive Teaching Methods BECS 202

1.3.1 Society and the development of Progressive

programme
The Progressive Programme, the thing that makes Progressives progressive,
is to develop the perfect society. This programme is not optional; it is dictated
by the nature of mankind.

Since society is what defines mankind, it follows, as the night follows the day,
that the programme of mankind, the purpose, the work, the essence of mankind,
is to create the perfect society.

The perfect society has two basic requirements.

First, it must meet all the basic needs of the individuals within that society such
as food, clothing, shelter, sanitation, and health, without which individuals will
always be tempted to engage in the counterproductive behavior of striving for
things.

Second, the social order must be of such a nature that it can persist,
theoretically forever, without fundamental change. Indeed, the very notion of
perfection implies that any change, of any type, is bad, since it will necessarily
constitute a movement away from perfection.

The perfect society therefore requires complete stability.

This would include:

‹ at a minimum, a stable population size
‹ the preservation of natural resources and the earth’s environment
When one hears the word “sustainability,” one is listening to Progressive gospel),
the careful management of the economy, and the careful control – if not
suppression – of unplanned innovations. This latter refers both to material (or
scientific) innovations, and innovations of thought, either of which will always
threaten hard-won societal stability.

The perfection of society is the paramount work of mankind, so any method

which may help in achieving this perfection is to be embraced; none discounted
out of hand.

The only considerations one must make in choosing methods of action are:

‹ Is this method practicable? and:

‹ Is this method more likely to be successful, or counterproductive?
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Unit 1 Progressive Theory of Knowledge

‹ These two questions fully define Progressive ethics.

1.3.2 Individuals and groups within Progressivism thought

Progressivism by definition places individuals in a subservient position to society.
Indeed, individuals within a Progressive society are differentiatable, and can
be publicly celebrated or castigated as individuals. But to a great extent the
potential worth of an individual is pre-determined by the group to which the
individual belongs. Group identity in Progressive schools is critically important,
as it provides the only feasible means by which the teachers can attempt to
control and direct individual behaviours.

Group identity is so critically important to Progressive thought that it has been

given a special name – “Diversity” – and has been designated as the Cardinal
Virtue, from which all the other, subsidiary, virtues – faith, hope, charity and
the like – must necessarily spring.

And so, to stand out as individuals, pupils must stand out as a member of their
group, and the manner in which they stand out must fundamentally reflect the
assigned essence of their group.

Therefore, while individuals within Progressive schools can achieve a certain

level of importance, individual importance is merely of tertiary concern, rather
than primary or even secondary concern.

Individuals can become officially “important” only if their importance reflects

the essence of their assigned group; and the importance of the assigned group
(the secondary concern), in turn, is proportional to its ability to advance the
Progressive Programme in general (which, of course, is the primary concern).

Individuals have the potential of rising to a state of importance within

Progressivism. The Progressive Programme aims to achieve a perfect society
with innate agenda for mankind, where one can determine between good and
evil. “Good” is anything which advances the Progressive Programme; and
“evil” is anything which threatens it.

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Zimbabwe Open University 9
Progressive Teaching Methods BECS 202

Activity 1.1
1. From your reading so far on progressivism, define the concept.
? 2.
3.
Outline the major principles of the progressive theory.
Evaluate the contribution of progressivism on the development of the
constructivist learning theory.

1.4 Progressive Theory Development

In the United States progressivism was not founded because of geography,
race, religion or ethnicity. It was founded on an idea that the individual’s God-
given right to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness – is the chief fact of
humankind, and that the only legitimate role of government is to create an
environment in which individuals can enjoy those rights to the fullest extent
possible.

The most famous early practitioners of progressive education were Francis

Parker and; philosopher John Dewey.

In 1875 Francis Parker became superintendent of schools in Quincy,

Massachusetts after spending two years in Germany studying emerging
educational trends on the continent. Parker was opposed to rote learning,
believing that there was no value in knowledge without understanding. He
argued instead that schools should encourage and respect the child’s creativity.
Parker’s Quincy System called for child-centered and experience-based
learning. He replaced the traditional curriculum with integrated learning units
based on core themes that related knowledge of different disciplines. He
replaced traditional readers, spellers and grammar books with children’s own
writing, literature, and teacher prepared materials.

That same year, philosopher John Dewey moved from the University of
Michigan to the newly established University of Chicago where he became
chair of the department of Philosophy, Psychology and Education. He and his
wife enrolled their children in Parker’s School before founding their own school
two years later.

Whereas Parker started with practice and then moved to theory, Dewey began
with hypotheses and then devised methods and curricula to test them. He
became dissatisfied with Philosophy as pure speculation and was seeking
ways to make Philosophy directly relevant to practical issues. Dewey rejected

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10 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 1 Progressive Theory of Knowledge

all forms of dualism and dichotomy in favor of a philosophy of experience as

a series of unified wholes in which everything can be ultimately related.

1.5 Principles of John Dewey

In 1896, John Dewey tested his theories and their sociological implications
and discovered in administration, selection of subject-matter, methods of
learning, teaching, and discipline and how a school could become a cooperative
community while developing in individuals, their own capacities and satisfy
their own needs. For Dewey, the two key goals of developing a cooperative
community and developing individuals’ own capacities were necessary to each
other. This unity of purpose lies at the heart of the progressive education
philosophy.

Founded on John Dewey were a unique pedagogy, emphasising students’

individual development through tutorials (“conferencing”) and personal
mentoring of students by faculty (“donning”), together with an emphasis on
writing, an open curriculum and education of the “whole person” producing
engaged students in fields that range from the arts to medicine; from public
service to law.

From this simple truth, we can deduce that, whatever it is that Progressives
are actually up to, it must have its roots in the writings of Dewey, The
Philosopher.

Dewey worked with other educators such as Charles Eliot and Abraham
Flexner to help bring progressivism into the mainstream of American education.

The new school organised its activities around four fundamental fields: science,
industry, aesthetics and civics. The School built its curriculum around “units of
work” that re-organised traditional subject matter into forms embracing the
development of children and the changing needs of adult life. The first and
second grades carried on a study of community life in which they actually built
a city. A third grade project became an entrée into History, Geography, reading,
writing, Arithmetic, Science, Art and Literature. Each of the units was broadly
conceived so that different children could concentrate on different aspects
depending on their own interests and needs. Each of the units called for widely
diverse student activities, and each sought to deal in depth with some critical
aspect of contemporary civilisation. Finally each unit engaged children working
together cooperatively and also provided opportunities for individual research
and exploration.
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Progressive Teaching Methods BECS 202

Progressive Education worked to promote a more student-centered approach

to education. When they reached college, the experimental students were
found to equal or surpass traditionally educated students on all outcomes:
grades, extracurricular participation, dropout rates, intellectual curiosity, and
resourcefulness. Moreover, the study found that the more the school departed
from the traditional college preparatory programme, the better was the record
of the graduates.

The seeds of the debate over progressive education can be seen in the
differences of Parker and Dewey. These have to do with how much and by
whom curriculum should be worked out from grade to grade, how much the
child’s emerging interests should determine classroom activities, the importance
of child-centred vs. societal–centred learning, the relationship of community
building to individual growth, and especially the relationship between emotion,
thought and experience.

Interestingly, some of the cold war reforms incorporated elements of

progressivism. For example, the work of Zacharias and Bruner was based in
the developmental psychology of Jean Piaget and incorporated many of
Dewey’s ideas of experiential education. Bruner’s analysis of developmental
psychology became the core of a pedagogical movement known as
constructivism.

1.6 The Constructivist Learning Theory

Constructivist teaching methods are based on the Constructivist Learning
Theory. Along with John Dewey, Jean Piaget researched childhood
development and education. Their theories are now encompassed in the
broader movement of progressive education.

Constructivist learning theory says that all knowledge is constructed from a

base of prior knowledge. Children are not a blank slate and knowledge cannot
be imparted without the child making sense of it according to his or her current
conceptions. Therefore children learn best when they are allowed to construct
a personal understanding based on experiencing things and reflecting on those
experiences. Constructivist philosophy has a long history of application in
education programmes .It assumes that as humans develop, there are
qualitative changes in their ability to think logically about experiences, but the
processes by which learning occur, cognitive adaptation and social mediation,
are believed to be continuous or remain the same throughout the life. At the
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12 Zimbabwe Open University
Unit 1 Progressive Theory of Knowledge

heart of constructivist philosophy is the belief that knowledge is not given but
gained through real experiences that have purpose and meaning to the learner,
and the exchange of perspectives about the experience with others (Piaget &
Inhelder, 1969; Vygotsky,1978).

This theoretical framework holds that learning always builds upon knowledge
that a student already knows, called a schema. Because all learning is filtered
through pre-existing schemata, constructivists suggest that learning is more
effective when a student is actively engaged in the learning process rather than
attempting to receive knowledge passively. A wide variety of methods claim
to be based on Constructivist Learning Theory. Most of these methods rely
on some form of guided discovery where the teacher avoids most direct
instruction and attempts to lead the student through questions and activities to
discover, discuss, appreciate and verbalise the new knowledge. Constructivists
argue that the child is an active participant in making meaning and must be
engaged in the progress of education for learning to be effective. Such
approaches emphasise that learning is not an “all or nothing” process but that
students learn the new information that is presented to them by building upon
knowledge that they already possess. It is therefore, important that teachers
constantly assess the knowledge their students have gained to make sure that
the students’ perceptions of the new knowledge are what the teacher had
intended. Teachers find that since the students build upon already existing
knowledge, when they are called upon to retrieve the new information, they
may make errors. It is known as reconstruction error when we fill in the
gaps of our understanding with logical, though incorrect, thoughts. Teachers
need to catch and try to correct these errors, though it is inevitable that some
reconstruction error continues to occur because of our innate retrieval
limitations.

In most pedagogies based on constructivism, the teacher’s role is not only to

observe and assess but to also engage with the students while they are
completing activities, wondering aloud and posing questions to the students
for promotion of reasoning. Teachers also intervene when there are conflicts
that arise. However, they simply facilitate the students’ resolutions and self-
regulation; with an emphasis on the conflict being the students’ and that they
must figure things out for themselves. For example, promotion of literacy is
accomplished by integrating the need to read and write throughout individual
activities within print-rich classrooms. The teacher, after reading a story,
encourages the students to write or draw stories of their own, or by having
the students reenact a story that they may know well, both activities encourage
the students to conceive themselves as readers and writers.
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Progressive Teaching Methods BECS 202

This psychological approach has deep connections to the work of both Parker
and Dewey.

Activity 1.2
1. Critically discuss the basic assumptions of the Constructivist Learning
? 2.
Theory.
How are the views of the Constructivist Learning Theory compatible
with the education system of your country?

1.7 Qualities of Progressive Programmes

Most progressive programmes have these qualities in common:

‹ Emphasis on learning by doing – hands-on projects, expeditionary

learning, experiential learning
‹ Integrated curriculum focused on thematic units
‹ Strong emphasis on problem solving and critical thinking
‹ Group work and development of social skills
‹ Understanding and action as the goals of learning as opposed to rote
knowledge
‹ Collaborative and cooperative learning projects
‹ Education for social responsibility and democracy
‹ Integration of community service and service learning projects into the
daily curriculum
‹ Selection of subject content by looking forward to ask what skills will
be needed in future society
‹ De-emphasis on textbooks in favour of varied learning resources
‹ Emphasis on life-long learning and social skills
‹ Assessment by evaluation of child’s projects and productions

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Unit 1 Progressive Theory of Knowledge

1.8 Characteristics of Progressive Schools

Most progressive schools are characterised by the following:

‹ The curriculum is more flexible and is influenced by student interest

‹ Teachers are facilitators of learning who encourage students to use a
wide variety of activities to learn
‹ Progressive teachers use a wider variety of materials allowing for
individual and group research
‹ Progressive teachers encourage students to learn by discovery
‹ Progressive education programs often include the use of community
resources and encourage service-learning projects
Given this view of human nature, a progressivist teacher desires to provide
not just reading and drill, but also real-world experiences and activities that
center on the real life of the students. Typical progressivist slogans are “Learn
by Doing!” and “Learn by Discovery.

1.9 Assessment by Evaluation of Child’s Projects

and Productions
A study conducted by Kohn and Schools from 1919 to 1955 reveals that
Progressive Education works to promote a more student-centered approach
to education. Experimental students are found to equal or surpass traditionally
educated students on all outcomes: grades, extracurricular participation,
dropout rates, intellectual curiosity, and resourcefulness. Moreover, it is evident
that the more the school departs from the traditional college preparatory
program; the better is the record of the graduates (Kohn and Schools, 1955).

Activity 1.3
1. Who are the founders of Progressivism?
? 2.
3.
Discuss the qualities of progressive programmes.
What characteristics make up a progressive school?

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Progressive Teaching Methods BECS 202

1.10 Progressive Model

The progressive teaching philosophy entails a number of models among which
the Student centred model is one. We discuss this model in detail. In this
section, we explore the student-centred model.

1.10.1 Student- centred model

Today many schools use progressive education methods, such as hands on
activities and science experiments.

Progressive, student-centred model is characterised by:

‹ Integrated curriculum focused on thematic units

‹ Strong emphasis on problem solving and critical thinking
‹ Group work and development of social skills
‹ Understanding and action as the goals of learning as opposed to rote
knowledge
‹ Collaborative and cooperative learning projects
‹ Integration of community service and service learning projects into the
daily curriculum
‹ Skills will be needed in future society
‹ De-emphasis on textbooks in favor of varied learning resources
‹ Emphasis on life-long learning and social skills
‹ Assessment by evaluation of child’s projects and product

1.10.2 What is educational progressivism?

Progressive education is characterised by the following ideas: Social justice,
Anti racism, Ethical conservation, Environmental justice, and Social welfare

Educational progressivism is the belief that education must be based on

the principle that humans are social animals who learn best in real-life activities
with other people. It advocates for student-centred courses and pedagogies,
about democratic efforts of many kinds in schools. Most progressive educators
believe that children learn as if they were scientists, following a process similar
to John Dewey’s model of learning that has the following steps:

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Unit 1 Progressive Theory of Knowledge

‹ become aware of the problem

‹ define the problem
‹ propose hypothesis to solve it
‹ evaluate the consequences of the hypotheses from one’s past experience
‹ test the likeliest solution
In a progressive school, you may find the following conditions prevailing:

Classroom layout suitable for group work

Pupils are no longer forced to sit in rows facing the teacher at the front where
the teacher could see all pupils’ faces but are seated in little groups facing
each other and it requires the teacher to change teaching style to a more
modern approach.

Teachers are expected to comment in positive terms since the system gives
the teacher a limited number of statements from which to choose. For example,
words like “use of the word experiencing some difficulties” than to say “very
lazy”.

Minimal use of marks vis a viz use of comments couched in positive

terms that is, quantitative analysis or reference to the performance of other
class members is not allowed.

Difficult to punish; The progressive trend avoids any kind of punishment

and corporal punishment is illegal. Teachers should ignore bad behaviour
and rely on good will of pupils to co –operate in the classroom.

Value clarification instead of Values transference; Values clarification is

based on humanistic , psychological techniques, whereby children as young
as five years are offered whole range of moral positions and told to make
their own choices according to what feels right in that particular situation.
Teachers are no longer authority figures but facilitators.

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Progressive Teaching Methods BECS 202

Activity 1.4
1. Discuss the applicability of progressive education in Zimbabwean
? 2.
schools.
What conditions do you expect to find in a progressive school?

1.4 Summary
In this unit, we have highlighted the evolution and development of progressive
theory, characteristics of progressive programmes and common practices in
progressive schools. We outlined and explained educational progressivism.
The qualities and characteristics of progressive schools have been explained.
We hope that this unit has set clearly the foundations of progressive education
as you begin to study this area in depth. The following unit, Unit 2 deals with
the progressive curriculum.

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References
Bain, Ken. (2004). What the Best College Teachers Do. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
Baker, R.E (1988). Progressive Teaching in the Primary School Harare
The College Press.
Beach, D. N. and Reinhartz, J. (1999). Supervision. Focus on Instruction.
New York: Harper and Row Publisher.
DeVries et al. (2002) Developing Constructivist Early Childhood
Curriculum: Practical principles and Activities. Teachers College
Press: New York.
Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1969). The Psychology of the child. New York:
Basic Books, Inc.
Vygotssky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher
psychological processes. Cambridge: MA, Harvard University Press.

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Unit Two
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The Progressive Curriculum

2.0 Introduction

I n Unit 1 we introduced you to progressive theory of knowledge. It is the

purpose of this unit to put into perspective the construct of Progressive
curriculum. We explain key concepts and issues that you encounter throughout
this unit are defined and explained in a language which is easy to understand.
From the onset of this unit, you should appreciate that progressivism as a
philosophy, recognises learners as the starting point for all curriculum design.
All that is needed is to emphasise the need for teacher support as children
learn. We also identify the major roles of a teacher in cultivating problem
solving skills in learners and in the creation of child-centred learning conditions.
The role of the teacher in progressive learning is also explained to some detail.
Progressive Teaching Methods BECS 202

2.1. Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 define the concepts progressivism, progressive education, progressive
curriculum integrated learning and child-centred learning
 explain what a progressive curriculum involves
 describe problem solving skills in learners
 evaluate child-centered learning conditions
 discuss the role of the teacher in progressive learning

2.2 Definition of Terms

In this section we define the term Progressivism and other related concepts.

2.2.1 Progressivism
Progressivism as a formal movement in the education system, dates back
long before the twentieth century. European educators such as Rousseau,
Pestalozzi, Froebel and Herbart, among others, had redirected educational
thinking along progressivism lines but this ideology was not widely received
until it became popularised long after its inception. The early progressivists
drew their sustenance from John Dewey, an American philosopher-teacher
who saw education primarily in sociological and psychological terms. But
what exactly is Progressivism?

Lawton (1989:5) sees progressivism as referring to a systematic way of

educational thought that favours the goal of the learner discovering for himself
or herself and following his or her impulses. Sarup (1982) concurs by remarking
that the educational ideology allows the learner to choose activities according
to his/her own needs and interest. Given the starting point as the learner in all
educational planning and subsequent processes, progressivists reject the idea
of a planned curriculum but recommend that all school experiences should be
based on the desires, needs, wants and demands of the learner. Strict adherence
to regulations and rules and excessive punishment are, therefore, discouraged
by the proponents of the approach. Instead, intrinsic motivation is highly
encouraged.

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2.2.2 Progressive curriculum

First, you have to understand what a curriculum is. This term is defined by a
variety of authorities in various ways. However, hereunder we present
definitions of the term that are common in a number of citations.

Dekker and Lemmer (1998: 430) assert the term curriculum to mean “ the
planned and organised activities pupils undertake in a school which include
the subject matter they are exposed to…These activities are closely linked to
aims and differing values about the purpose of the school”.

Barker (1998:117) defines the term as “all the learning which takes place in
any educational establishment, which is either a direct or indirect result of the
planned activities which are practised there.”

Another definition is offered by Kerr (1968:16) who defines the term as “All
the learning which is planned or guided by the school, whether it is carried on
in groups or individually, inside or outside the school.”

All the above definitions agree on the view that a curriculum encompasses
activities undertaken in school. However, the latter two seem to agree on the
view that the activities may be directly or indirectly planned by the school,
thereby including what has been popularised as the hidden curriculum.
Dekker and Lemmer‘s (1998) definition does not include the learnt matter
resulting from the informal pupil-pupil interaction, hence it is devoid of the
hidden curriculum aspect. For more insight into these definitions, other
modules, for example, Module EA3AD303: Curriculum Implementation,
Change and Innovation, are very helpful.

The progressive way of thinking emphasises all facets of the child‘s welfare. It
follows, therefore, that the concern of a progressive curriculum should be
the whole child in the context of the following aspects:

‹ Intellectual growth
‹ Social growth
‹ Emotional growth
‹ Physical development
A progressive curriculum, therefore, should consider and encompass the
intellectual, social, emotional and physical development of the learner. All
activities that a school plans for must cater for all these growth and
developmental aspects of the learner. We have pointed out above that the aim
of progressive education is to produce a whole child. The progressive
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curriculum therefore, must be in line with the requirements of progressive

education. Travers and Rebore (1987) propound that real problems in the
student‘s life must be part of the curriculum. This implies that the more identical
the variables within and outside the school, the more or greater the transfer of
knowledge. Curriculum activities must include and utilise field trips, projects,
discussions and various types of media (Farrant, 1991).

Activity 2.1
1. According to your understanding so far, show which of the following
? are basic principles of progressive education
(a) The school‘s major societal function is to teach the youth how to
read, write and compute well at all levels
(b) Vocational education and liberal studies are equally important
(c) Pupil conformity to classroom rules should be jointly determined
by the teacher and the student
(d) Corporal punishment should be considered an inhumane method
of class control
(e) Report cards should reflect progress from many view points:
academic, social, emotional and physical
(f) Externally enforced discipline leads to self- discipline Justify your
position.
2. Progressivism is a break away movement from pedagogical
traditionalism organised around the seemingly outmoded and
antidemocratic ideas of drill, discipline, and didactic exercises. Discuss.

2.3 Cultivating Problem Solving Skills in Learners

Before we venture into the provision of guidance that the progressive teacher
can adopt to help promote problem solving skills in the student, it is imperative
that you be acquainted with what is meant by the concept “problem solving
skills” and what its benefits are to the classroom situation.

2.3.1 What are problem solving skills?

Problem-solving skills are student-centred strategies in which students learn
about a subject in the context of complex, multifaceted, and realistic problems.
Problem solving involves changing an existing difficult situation into a more

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desired situation or outcome. There are many models of problem solving, but
the chief components are:

‹ identifying a problem,
‹ coming up with one or more solutions or theories,
‹ testing your solution to see if it works, and
‹ developing a new solution if the first one you try does not work
Taking a problem solving approach can be a big help in a learner if he/she is to
improve in critical thinking and analysis.

Working in groups, students identify what they already know, what they need
to know, and how and where to access new information that may lead to
resolution of the problem. The role of the instructor is that of facilitator of
learning who provides appropriate scaffolding of that process by (for example),
asking probing questions, providing appropriate resources, and leading class
discussions, as well as designing student assessments.

Problem-solving skills are part and parcel of Problem-Based Learning (PBL)

which was pioneered in the health sciences at McMaster University in the late
1960’s and subsequently it has been adopted by other medical school programs
(Barrows, 1996) and also been adapted for undergraduate instruction. The
use of PBL, like other student-centered pedagogies, has been motivated by
recognition of the failures of traditional instruction (Wingspread, 1994; Boyer,
1998) and the emergence of deeper understandings of how people learn
(National Research Council, 2000). Unlike traditional instruction, problem
solving methodologies actively engage the student in constructing knowledge
in their own mind by themselves, and thus address many of deficits of traditional
classroom where knowledge is expounded by and is the preserve of the teacher/
educator.

Characteristics of Problem Solving Approach are:

‹ Learning is driven by challenging, open-ended, ill-defined and ill-

structured problems.
‹ Students generally work in collaborative groups.
‹ Teachers take on the role as “facilitators” of learning.
According to Hmelo-Silver and Barrows (2006), the role of the instructor is
to guide the learning process rather than provide knowledge. From this
perspective, feedback and reflection on the learning process and group
dynamics are essential components of the problem solving approach. Learners
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are considered to be active agents who engage in social knowledge

construction.

In PBL, students are encouraged to take responsibility for their group and
organise and direct the learning process with support from a teacher or
instructor. Advocates of PBL claim it can be used to enhance content
knowledge while simultaneously fostering the development of communication,
problem-solving, and self-directed learning skills.

PBL may position students in a simulated real world working and professional
context which involves policy, process, and ethical problems that will need to
be understood and resolved to some outcome. By working through a
combination of learning strategies to discover the nature of a problem,
understanding the constraints and options to its resolution, defining the input
variables, and understanding the viewpoints involved, students learn to negotiate
the complex sociological nature of the problem and how competing resolutions
may inform decision-making.

2.3.2 Benefits of the Problem Solving Approach

One of the aims of the approach is the development of self-directed learning
(SDL) skills. According to Loyens, Magda and Rikers (2008), SDL is defined
as a process in which individuals take the initiative in diagnosing their learning
needs, formulating goals, identifying human and material resources, choosing
and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning
outcomes.

By being invited into the learning process, students are also invited to take
responsibility for their learning, which leads to and increase in self-directed
learning skills. Severiens and Schmidt (2009) found out that problem solving
and its focus on SDL led to motivation for students to maintain study pace,
led to social and academic integration, encouraged development of cognitive
skills, and fostered more study progress than students in a traditional learning
setting. Problem solving encourages learners to take a place in the academic
world through inquiring and discovery that is central to problem-based learning.

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2.4 Strategies for Cultivating Problem Solving Skills

in Learners
Solving problems in a classroom situation can be difficult for children of any
age, especially in the areas of Mathematics and Sciences. Teaching your child
or student some simple problem solving strategies that use logical reasoning
techniques can help them learn how to think things through and come up with
a plan that will best address the problem. Presented hereunder are some tips
that you, the classroom practitioner, can employ in an attempt to improve and
cultivate problem solving skills in the learners.

‹ Tell your student or child to try and simplify an identified problem by

stating it in a simplified manner using own words.
‹ Ask the student or your child to tell you what they already know about
the identified problem and what they need to know in order to answer
the question.
‹ Have them think about and consider what options are there for solving
the problem; what do they think is the best option for solving the problem
and why?
‹ Ask them what materials and tools, if any, they will need to illustrate the
results or steps to solve the problem (protractors, rulers, weights and
measures, blocks).
‹ Have your student or child state verbally, or through a series of written
steps, how they solved the problem and what conclusions they drew
from the completion of the problem and the strategies they used for
reaching that conclusion.
‹ Ask your student, or child, to restate what the question was, what their
solution is, how they came up with the solution and if the solution solved
the problem.
‹ Have the student or your child tell you how they know their solution is
a good one.
‹ Explain to your student or child that problem solving strategies simplify
the problem; make it easier for them to address and solve the problem;
helps them approach problem solving using a series of steps; logical
thinking and incorporates knowledge they already have and can be
used in a variety of subjects or report writing including the drawing of a
conclusion.

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Activity 2.2
1. In your study groups, discuss the merits and challenges of each of the
? 2.
strategies listed above.
Which ones do you think are applicable to your situation? Give reasons.

Incorporating manipulatives, models, making tables or graphs helps your child

or student simplify the problem and helps them break the problem down into
a series of steps that helps with solving problems, especially in subjects such
as Science or Mathematics.

Since, Science for example, depends largely on drawing conclusions and turning
a theory into a solution based on fact, teaching problem solving strategies and
incorporating those strategies into a workable plan helps children learn how
to use and hone the critical thinking skills they will need to be successful in
school, a career and in life.

2.5 The Role of the Teacher in Progressive Learning

The teacher‘ role is multifaceted in progressive learning and more demanding.
In fact, Barker (1990) refers progressive teaching as “the type of teaching not
for the faint-hearted”. This is because of the tremendous amount of research,
improvising and making of teaching/learning equipment, collection of material,
detailed and long term planning and extremely carefully preparation. A
progressive teacher‘s roles and responsibilities are intricate and unlike other
teachers, the prospective teacher‘s work seems to permeate and suffuse his
whole life.

Barker (1990) enumerates a long list of the roles and responsibilities of the
progressive teacher. The list, however, is not exhaustive and you are
encouraged to add onto the list as you progress with your reading and
understanding of the philosophy of progressive education. Among the roles
are the following which you should be able to explain and expand upon:

‹ Plan and prepare the activities which occur in the lesson, that the children
teach themselves. These activities can involve discussion, field trips,
research, seeing and problem solving.

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Unit 2 The Progressive Curriculum

The teacher is a guide.

The teacher is always seeking for useful materials and information. He/she is
always preparing pictures, diagrams, work cards, tables and flash cards, among
others.

‹ The teacher is always making collections of books that are full of

interesting ideas, stories, illustrations, games, songs and puzzles. He/
she works hard to garner instructional materials and human assistance
in order to individualise the instructional process.
All these roles and others as indicated earlier on, are meant to make sure that
learners under the teacher‘s guidance, have control of their own learning. The
involvement of the various paraphernalia in the instructional process is in
recognition that progressive teachers should emphasise a concrete, sensory
and tangible approach to teaching.

In spite of the different models of progressive education, the progressive

teachers still are engrossed in responsibilities that appear common in all these
existing modes. The common practices teachers are involved in are:

‹ They collaboratively formulate a curriculum which is more flexible and

is influenced by student interest.
‹ Teachers are facilitators of learning who encourage students to use a
wide variety of activities to learn.
‹ Progressive teachers use a wider variety of materials allowing for
individual and group research.
‹ Progressive teachers encourage students to learn by discovery.
‹ Progressive teachers often include in the educational programmes, the
use of community resources and encourage service-learning projects.
Some General Assumptions of Progressive Education

As you may have gathered so far, progressivism like any other philosophy
makes a lot of assumptions about an effective instructional process. The list
below is not exhaustive and you should make an attempt to improve on the
list. Progressivism assumes that:

‹ The child must experience the ideas to be learnt. Real problems in the
students‘ lives must be part of the curriculum.
‹ A comprehensive curriculum is encouraged. General education, practical
arts and career education are all recommended.
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‹ Organisation of content is determined jointly by the teacher and the

student.
‹ Curriculum must be adapted to the child.
‹ The subject matter has no automatic relationship or transfer value to
life in general. Knowing facts alone does not help one to be capable of
solving confronted problems. Relevance of material is the key word.

Activity 2.3
1. “Progressivism in education never dominated educational thought, yet
? it was seen as the culprit for most problems” (Travers and Rebore;
1987). Discuss this assertion drawing illustrations from an education
system of a country of your choice.
2. According to Travers and Rebore (1987), the goal to tailor instruction
to individual needs must not be scrapped by sheer numbers. As a
progressive teacher, suggest ways of overcoming the problem associated
with individual instruction created as a result of these huge class sizes.

Criticisms Against Progressivism

Travers and Rebore (1987) argue that Progressivism means many things to
different educators and other citizenry as the term almost escapes definition.
For this and other reasons, Progressive education is therefore, associated
with the following shortcomings:

‹ Progressivism is a vague philosophy which different stakeholders view

differently
‹ It encourages academic mediocrity
‹ It places excessive concern on student needs and interests
‹ Progressivism overburdens the teacher through his/her undertaking of
the numerous functions which include both instructional and managerial
‹ The needs of the “whole” child must be addressed on an individual
basis, but bearing in mind that the secondary school teacher is in charge
of over one hundred pupils, it is impossible to individualise instruction.
However, the goal to tailor instruction to individual needs must not be
scrapped by sheer numbers” (Travers and Rebore; 1987)

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However, the merits and demerits of progressive education are not lightly
debated. Critics and defenders alike all too often think and write in either-or
terms: either progressive education saves the child from stifling, pedantic, rote
drill form of human training, or it destroys the child‘s mind, his/her cultural
heritage and eventually his society.

An educational critic, Handlin (1958: 13) writes:

There has been a growing tendency to lay the blame for the faults of American
education to a single cause. Johnny‘s inability to read, juvenile delinquency,
the high divorce rate and the presumed failure of our scientists to keep pace
with the Russians have alike been ascribed to the corrupting influence of
progressive education.

The quotation brings to light some of the shortcomings of progressive education.

Another source of contention has been that while it is argued that the philosophy
of progressivism has its roots ascribed to the great philosopher Dewey, much
of what is now referred to as progressive education is only parody of what
Dewey had intended (Ernst; 1953).

Activity 2.4
1. Drawing examples from an education system you are familiar with,
? examine the faults which you would ascribe to progressive education.
2. According to your understanding of Dewey, how far do you agree
with Ernst‘s (1953) assertion?

2.8 Integrated Learning

The term Integrated Learning was coined by Jerry Perez de Tagle and comes
in many varieties: connecting skills and knowledge from multiple sources and
experiences; applying skills and practices in various settings; utilizing diverse
and even contradictory points of view; and, understanding issues and positions
contextually.

Integrated learning, according to Jonas (1989), refers to a non-

compartmentalised approach to basic learning. As opposed to traditional
curricula, which separate related subjects, integrated learning alternates learning
on the subjects. Another major component of the integrated learning is
problem-solving based learning.
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According to Farrant (1991) integrated learning is an attempt to avoid the

fragmentation of knowledge that results from teaching subjects in schools. It
attempts to look at knowledge as a whole in terms of its relevance to the
pupils.

Integrated learning, in a nut-shell, refers to the fusion of knowledge from

different disciplines; the approach to learning and teaching from a variety of
world-views, strategies, and resources; and the tapping of real-life situations
for problem solving and critical thinking in the classroom.

According to Oberholtzer (1937:15), the philosophy underlying curriculum

integration holds that education is the “creative grappling with the situations
which the world continually puts before us… Education has the task of setting
up programmes so that the child may and will develop the ability to answer
intelligently and faces courageously certain life problems with some skills in
finding possible solutions”. You also need to be familiar with the aims of
integrated learning to guide you as you prepare for your lessons.

General aims of integrated learning are:

‹ To develop children’s independence and interdependence as efficient

and motivated learners.
‹ Enable children to perceive the curriculum as relevant to their learning
needs.
‹ Acknowledge that attitudes and values play a pivotal role in exploring
concepts and principles in all curriculum areas.
‹ To enhance teaching and learning more effectively than through a
separate subject approach
As an innovation, integrated learning tries to rectify the divisive effect that the
old concept of learning as a discipline pursued in the study of subjects has
upon the child‘s concept of knowledge.

2.9 Promotion of Integrated Learning

Integrated learning can be achieved using various strategies. These ways
include: holding integrated days, integrated studies, core curriculum and learning
by topics rather than by subjects (Farrant; 1991). These are discussed in
detail.

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2.9.1 Holding integrated days

Advocates of such integrated learning interventions suggest that at times, formal
timetables should be abandoned and allow children to work individually or in
groups on those things that interest them more. However, children are not left
to their own devices. The progressive teacher should carefully prepare the
classroom environment so that it is stimulating for the children to learn in.
Selection of learning material should be done with care as the teacher has to
make sure that he/she provides them with the kind of material they need for
the task at hand. However, Farrant (1991) cautions that the integrated day is
not a solution to all learning problems as it does allow a measure of flexibility
that is impossible when working to a time table.

2.9.2 Integrated Studies

Theorists on integrated learning, who advocate a constructivist view of learning,
support the notion that learning is best accomplished when information is
presented in meaningful, connected patterns. This includes interdisciplinary
studies that link multiple curricular areas.

Another argument they put forward for integration is that it represents a way
to avoid the fragmented and irrelevant acquisition of isolated facts; transforming
knowledge into personally useful tools for learning new information (Lipson,
et al. 1993: 252). In the integrated studies, the course work is adjusted to
allow different subject matter information to be learnt concurrently around
certain themes. The themes are the organising principles for integrating
academic lessons, occupational study, and learning experience. For example,
with carpentry as an occupational theme, mathematics, science, and economics
would be taught as they relate to carpentry.

According to Farrant (1991), integrated learning is more formal and essentially

subject based. Its major difference from the traditional method is in the manner
it groups subjects such as History, Geography and Science into a single all-
embracing subject such as Environmental Studies and subjects such as Art,
Craft, Music, Drama and Dance into Creative Art.

Another rationale for integrated learning finds its basis in the commonsense
wisdom of teachers, who are coping with an increased body of knowledge,
large classes, and many mandates related to everything from drug awareness
to HIV/AIDS. When all of these requirements are added to the traditional
body of knowledge for which teachers feel responsible, integration is seen as
one way to meet both the needs of the students and the requirements of
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society. The integration of curricular areas and concepts allows teachers to

assist students as they prepare for the next century.

The movement towards integrated curriculum is a move away from

memorisation and recitation of isolated facts and figures to more meaningful
concepts and the connections between concepts. Malloy (1996: 233)
concluded that “curriculum is a potent tool for reform when it integrates and
inter-relates subjects and disciplines in a manner that makes learning
experiences meaningful”.

The twenty-first century requirement for a flexible use of knowledge goes

beyond a superficial understanding of multiple isolated events to insights
developed by learning that is connected-or integrated. Perkins (1998)
advocates for teaching for transfer and thoughtful learning when he states: A
concern with connecting things up, with integrating ideas, within and across
subject matters, and with elements of out-of-school life, inherently is a concern
with understanding in a broader and a deeper sense. Accordingly, there is a
natural alliance between those making a special effort to teach for
understanding and those making a special effort toward integrative education.
This view supports the notion of curriculum integration as a way of making
education more meaningful.

2.9.3 Core curriculum

According to Vars (1987), core curriculum entails schools moving away from
teaching isolated facts toward a more constructivist view of learning, which
values in-depth knowledge of subjects. Though not integration in its strict
sense (Farrant; 1991), this view finds its basis in the work of Piaget, Dewey,
Bruner, and others who hold a holistic view of learning. Each of these theorists
is concerned with children having an understanding of concepts and underlying
structures. The type of integrated learning has evolved from the conflict of
aims posed by the desire that children should not only be allowed to develop
their talents and personality freely, but should also leave school with a certain
core of basic knowledge and skills. The kind of integration is implemented in
the schools as core curriculum which is studied by all pupils enrolled in the
school system. However, an additional and optional range of subjects is offered
from which pupils are free to choose which ones they like to pursue in
conjunction with the core areas.

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2.9.4 Learning by topics rather than by subjects

One way to address this expectation that is, learning by topics is by teaching
core concepts and skills through the connection of multiple subject areas to a
unifying theme or issue. With its holistic, constructivist, child-centred approach
to education, integrated learning has resulted with shifts to a standardised,
subject-specific, back-to-basics curriculum. Farrant (1991) explains that
learners may choose topics such as water or wind because these affect their
everyday lives or they may choose some occurrence they have recently
experienced.

This follows that topics used as the basis of integrated units of work should
lend themselves to a worthwhile exploration of meaningful content that relates
to and extends students’ life experiences and understanding of the world. The
selection of worthwhile content is essential if integrated learning is to be
effective. This content can be packaged in the form of particular related topics,
around which units of work are then developed. Needless further to say the
topics selected for the units of work need to deal with content of significance
to the pupils‘ everyday lives.

Activity 2.5

? 1. Among the methods employed to integrate learning discussed above,

which one do you prefer? Justify your choice.

2.10 The Benefits of Integrated Learning

The following are the major benefits derived from integrated learning. These
are presented briefly:

‹ The Integrated learning concept focuses mainly on the child as a learner.

‹ It focuses on the processes involved in the development of thinking and
learning.
‹ It allows children to use higher order thinking skills.
‹ It promotes greater understanding since links between key learning areas
are deliberately maintained and fostered.
‹ It is ‘understanding driven’ – the ultimate goal of teaching and learning
becomes one of enhancing students’ understanding of the way the world
works.
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‹ It gives children a more holistic view of the world. It makes learning

‘whole.’ Topics are explored in context.
‹ It attempts to make learning relevant and meaningful to the learner.
‹ It allows the teacher to incorporate a variety of teaching techniques
and strategies to cater for all children’s needs and preferred learning
styles.
‹ It involves children in active enquiry learning rather than passive
absorption of facts and knowledge.
‹ It capitalises on children’s experiences and gives scope for the provision
of a wide range of further meaningful experiences.
‹ It allows scope to explore cultural perspectives relevant to the groups
of children in the class.
‹ It encourages children to develop skills of critical reasoning so that they
are capable of making informed judgements.
Other benefits of the philosophy can be inferred form characteristics of
integrated learning. You are encouraged to read further and come up with
more of these benefits. As you interact with the pupils, you may also realise
further benefits of the undertaking.

2.11 Child-centred Learning

The term child-centred learning is a protest term against rote learning. By
implication, the type of learning emphasises the importance of the child over
the content to be studied. One of the proponents of the type of learning is
John Dewey who advocated for the adaptation of the curriculum to the learner‘s
needs and not the learner to the school curriculum. Child centred learning
advocates for education according to nature in order to bring about the
revolutionary character of the nature of man.

2.11.1 The key characteristics of child-centred learning

There are a number of features that characterise child-centred learning. These
include among others, the following.

‹ Child is more important than the subject matter

‹ Learning should reflect the nature of the child

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Unit 2 The Progressive Curriculum

‹ Knowledge is made worthwhile through appealing to the child‘s five

senses
‹ Learning takes into account the interests of the child
‹ Learning is more about how children learn than what they learn
‹ Class work is involves children‘s actions in peer teaching, small groups
and teamwork
‹ Classroom work is closely connected to community activities
‹ Activities in child-centred learning involve environmental concerns and
are undertaken through experimental approaches

Activity 2.6
1. With reference to the education system of your country, show how the
? above characteristics of child-centred learning are manifest in the
instructional processes.

2.11.2 Creating child-centred learning conditions

In an attempt to bring success in child centred learning, the teacher should
consider the following:

‹ Allow learner to learn at their own pace

‹ Make learning interesting and tempting
‹ Make learners curious by stimulating their desire to experiment
‹ Actively engage learners in activities
‹ Involve the learners in activities that make them use their senses, that is,
sight, hearing, touch/feeling and tasting
Over and above these specific roles, the teacher needs to account for the
following roles as

‹ Collaborator in instructional activities

‹ Team leader
‹ Guide during the teacher-learner contact as well as learner-learner
contact

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2.11.3 Criticisms against child-centred learning

The approach to learning has been criticised for a number of reasons. Firstly,
the method does not assist the learners to acquire skills in areas such as Reading
and Mathematics. These areas and others can only be mastered through a
systematic process. Secondly, some cultures particularly in the developing
world encourage conformity, authority and group reliance. These are not
compatible with the expectations of the child centred education and as such,
may create antagonism between school and communities. Furthermore,
different children have different needs which need to be satisfied through different
means. Imagine a school with hundreds of students with different needs. What
possibility is there that all individual needs are satisfied through the child centred
learning? Child centered learning has been identified to be a contributory factor
towards the fall in reading, writing and numeracy.

2.12 Summary
In this unit we discussed the concepts progressivism, progressive education,
progressive curriculum, integrated learning and child-centred learning. We
listed and explained the role of the teacher in progressive learning and we saw
that the roles are multifaceted and at times tedious. We also presented the
key characteristics of child-centred learning and these should assist you come
up with the appropriate teaching/learning mechanisms that suit these
characteristics. We also exposed you to strategies that can be employed in
trying to create child-centered learning conditions and those that can be applied
in the promotion of integrated learning. We argued that integrated learning
can be promoted in four various ways which are holding integrated days,
teaching by topics, the core curriculum strategy and integrated studies. Though
the aspects discussed are not without their own faults, their application to the
school system contribute immensely to the child‘s complete development.
The next unit, Unit 3 dwells on the concept Progressive Teacher.

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References
Barker, R. E. (1994). Progressive Teaching in the Primary School, Harare:
College Press.
Barrows, H. S. (1996). Problem-based learning in medicine and beyond: A
brief overview. New Directions for Teaching and Learning (68)
3-12.
Bishop, G. (1985). Curriculum Development: A Textbook for Students,
London: McMillan Publishers.
Dekker, E.L. and Lemmer, E. M. (eds). (1998). Critical issues in modem
education. Johannesburg: Heinemann
Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and Education, New York: McMillan Co.
Ernst, F. (1953). “How Dangerous is John Dewey?” The Atlantic Monthly,
CXCI
Farrant, J. S. (1991). Principles and Practice of Education, London:
Longman.
Fogarty, R. (1991). The Mindful School: How to Integrate the Curricula.
Palatine, IL: Skylight Publishing, Inc.
Handlin, O. (1958). “Rejoinder to the Critics of John Dewey,” New York
Times Magazine, June 1958.
Hmelo-Silver, C.E. ((2004).Problem Based Learning: What and How Do
Students Learn? Educational Review, Vol. 16. No. 3.
Kerr, J. (1968). Changing the curriculum, London: Hodder and Staughton.
Lawton, D. (1989). Social Change, Educational Theory and Curriculum
Planning, London: Hodder and Stroughton.
Lipson, M.; Valencia, S.; Wixson, K.; and Peters, C. (1993) “Integration and
Thematic Teaching: Integration to Improve Teaching and Learning.”
Language Arts 70/4 252-264
Loyens, S., Magda, J., & Rikers, R. (2008). Self-Directed Learning in
Problem-Based Learning and its Relationships with Self-Regulated
Learning. Educational Psychology Review, 20(4), 411-427.
Malloy, W. (1996). Essential schools and inclusion: A responsive partnership.
The Educational Forum, 60 (3), 228-236.
Murdoch, K. and Hornsby, D. (2004). ‘Planning Curriculum Connections
– Whole School Planning for Integrated Curriculum’, St Joseph’s
Primary School, Collingwood.
Travers, P.D. and Rebore, R. W. (1987). Foundations of Education:
Becoming a teacher, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Wilkerson, L. & Gijselaers, W.H. (eds.). New directions for teaching and
learning, vol. 68. Bringing problem-based learning to higher
education: Theory and practice, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

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The Progressive Teacher

3.0 Introduction

I n this unit we introduce you to the concept of progressive teacher. We

explain the concept progressive teacher. We enumerate and explain the
characteristics that a progressive teacher should possess so as for progressive
education to succeed. As such we examine the qualities of progressive
education programmes and link these qualities to the educator‘s characteristics.
In order to facilitate effective selection of content, in the unit we also list the
factors to consider when selecting subject content for a particular class.
Furthermore, we explain the importance of integrating of community service
and learning into daily curriculum. Finally, we show how reporting on learners‘
progress through learner assessment is vital in progressive education.
Progressive Teaching Methods BECS 202

3.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define the concepts progressive teacher

 explain the characteristics of a progressive teacher
 discuss the qualities of progressive education programmes and link
these to the educator‘s characteristics
 list the factors to consider when selecting subject content for a particular
class
 explain the importance of integrating of community service and learning
into daily curriculum
 show how reporting on learners‘ progress through learner assessment
is vital in progressive education

3.2 Definition of Terms

Travers and Rebore (1987) argue that the term progressive teacher refers
to an educator embracing reformist educational philosophies and methods
that emphasise individual instruction, informality in the classroom, and the use
of group discussions and laboratories as instructional techniques. They go
further to state that the progressive teacher is one that emphasises on all facets
of the child‘s welfare and holds the view that the school should act as a catalyst
for both social change and justice.

Kremer (2005) assert progressive teachers to be educators whose views are

entrenched in the belief that mastery of basic skills and knowledge springs
from conceptual understanding whereas the traditional teacher believe it is the
other way round.

Given the above definitions and explanations on progressive education, one

can deduce a working definition of progressive teacher. The term can, therefore,
be taken to mean an educator who holds the view that education should be a
pluralistic phenomenon, embracing industrial training, agricultural education,
and social education as well as the new techniques of instruction which accords
children the best opportunities and experiences to learn by actual performance.

The progressive teacher insists that education must be a continuous

reconstruction of living experience based on activity directed by the child.
The recognition of individual differences is also considered crucial. Progressive
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Unit 3 The Progressive Teacher

educator opposes formalised authoritarian procedure and fosters reorganisation

of classroom practice and curriculum as well as new attitudes toward individual
students (Rogers, 1992).

3.3 Characteristics of a Progressive Educator

The progressive educator needs to be bejeweled with the following
characteristics:

‹ One who accepts and views the child learner as a total person and not
a vessel into which information should be poured
‹ One who is capable of making sure that all students needs are addressed
‹ One who is pragmatic. He/she must be devoted to objective and
scientific thinking
‹ One capable of standing by the progressivist ideology because the
community can be offended by the approach at times
‹ Collaborative because content is determined jointly with students. The
progressive teacher, though, still remains aware of the policies but allows
more freedom in classroom activities.
‹ The progressive educator must be one who strongly endorses teacher-
pupil consensus and democratic participation in the classroom activities
Having adorned with the above characteristics, the progressive teacher needs
to recognise that progressive education programmes have these common
qualities garlanded in them:

‹ Emphasis on learning by doing – hands-on projects, expeditionary

learning, experiential learning
‹ Integrated curriculum focused on thematic units
‹ Strong emphasis on problem solving and critical thinking
‹ Group work and development of social skills
‹ Understanding and action as the goals of learning as opposed to rote
knowledge
‹ Collaborative and cooperative learning projects
‹ Education for social responsibility and democracy

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‹ Integration of community service and service learning projects into the

daily curriculum
‹ Selection of subject content by looking forward to ask what skills will
be needed in future society
‹ De-emphasis on textbooks in favor of varied learning resources
‹ Emphasis on life-long learning and social skills
‹ Assessment by evaluation of child’s projects and productions

Activity 3.1
1. Discuss the qualities of progressive education provided above in relation
? 2.
to your school.
What qualities are expected of a progressive teacher?

3.4 Progressive Education

The term “progressive” was engaged to distinguish this education from the
traditional curriculum of the 19th century, which was rooted in classical
preparation for the university and strongly differentiated by socioeconomic
level. By contrast, progressive education finds its roots in present experience.
Progressivism has been seen to be an approach to education that has its focus
on the learner as the starting point.

Progressive education may be defined as a set of reformist educational

philosophies and methods that emphasise individual instruction, informality in
the classroom, and the use of group discussions and laboratories as instructional
techniques (Travers and Rebore; 1987).

Progressive education has its roots on the ideology of progressivism.

According to Travers and Rebore (1987), Progressive education is an
educational approach grounded on pragmatism, a belief that if ideas have to
have value, they must have a practical worthiness. Education which is of no
practical utility therefore, is not progressive education. Pragmatism incorporates
the concept of relativity to knowledge. Lawrence Cremin, writing about
progressive education as a movement from 1876 to 1955, thought progressive
education meant the following:

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Unit 3 The Progressive Teacher

‹ Enlarging the function of the school to incorporate concern for quality

of family and community life
‹ Developing new techniques of teaching
‹ Fitting the curriculum to the variety of learners in the public school
‹ Diffusing culture among the populace without diminishing the value of
that culture, especially the sciences and arts
According to Travers and Rebore (1987), the approach rejects the idea of
accepting orthodox views and values blindly but the following are aspects
that are readily engulfed in the approach:

‹ Experimental attitudes in all subject matter

‹ Problem solving techniques
‹ Objective or scientific methodology in classroom approaches
Educational progressivism is the belief that education must be based on the
principle that humans are social animals who learn best in real-life activities
with other people. Most progressive educators believe that children learn as
if they were scientists, following a process similar to John Dewey’s model of
learning:
1. Become aware of the problem.
2. Define the problem
3. Propose hypotheses to solve it
4. Evaluate the consequences of the hypotheses from one’s past experience
5. Test the likeliest solution

Given this view of human nature, a progressivist teacher desires to provide

not just reading and drill, but also real-world experiences and activities that
center on the real life of the students. Typical progressivist slogans are “Learn
by Doing!” and “Learn by Discovery.”

3.5 Characteristics of Progressive Education

Most progressive education programs have these qualities in common:

‹ Emphasis on learning by doing – hands-on projects, expeditionary

learning, experiential learning
‹ Integrated curriculum focused on thematic units
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‹ Strong emphasis on problem solving and critical thinking

‹ Group work and development of social skills
‹ Understanding and action as the goals of learning as opposed to rote
knowledge
‹ Collaborative and cooperative learning projects
‹ Education for social responsibility and democracy
‹ Integration of community service and service learning projects into the
daily curriculum
‹ Selection of subject content by looking forward to ask what skills will
be needed in future society
‹ De-emphasis on textbooks in favour of varied learning resources
‹ Emphasis on life-long learning and social skills
‹ Assessment by evaluation of child’s projects and productions
Progressive education is best characterised by numerous theories and practices.
The following list is, however, not exhaustive of these characteristics (Travers
and Rebore, 1987):

‹ open classroom
‹ individualised instruction
‹ self-paced instructional materials
‹ grouping
‹ affective education
‹ problem based curricula, such as themes focusing on the environment,
social issues, and political questions
‹ vocational or career education
‹ counselling
‹ creative and social programmes such as drama, school newspapers
and athletics.
Progressive education, therefore, entails knowledge and methodology
repackaging to involve the learner to a greater extent. Furthermore, the learner
views the past only in relation to the present and future. He/she begins a study
on a topic wherever interest and need arises. Contemporary events are the
starting point of class discussions as the teacher tries to harness these events
to relate past knowledge to the present, however, taking note that there is no
force feeding. The student must internalise or personalise the learnt material if
it is to be useful now and in future.
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Activity 3.2
1. Define progressive education.
? 2. In light of the above theories and practices, how far has the education
system in your country gone and succeeded in the implementation of
progressive education? Use tangible examples to illustrate your answer.

3.6 Selection of Subject Content

The selection of subject content or matter is an area requiring careful
consideration. The pedagogical progressives embrace child-centred pedagogy
favoured education built upon an experience-based curriculum developed by
both students and teachers collaboratively. Teachers play a special role in the
progressive formulation of education as they merge their deep knowledge of,
and affection for, children with the intellectual demands of the subject matter.

Progressivism entails forging changes in the traditional curriculum content.

The curriculum should embrace subject matter which integrates local
knowledge and skills with the universal learning of science, mathematics, and
social studies. Progressive teachers consider the study of local world-views
and resources as valid inclusions in the subject matter or content selected in
instruction. Along with an integrated curriculum come collaboration, parent
involvement, and community-based schooling. In essence, subject matter
should reflect more fully what happens in real life.

3.7 Integration of Community Service and Learning

into Daily Curriculum
Aikenhead, (1991) argues that the problems or issues arise in the community
and enter the world of technology because problems/issues are first and
foremost linked to people and we live mainly in a technological world rather
than a scientific world. Aikenhead (1991) is attempting to suggest that events
(issues/problems) are first identified in society and are passed into the school
domain where technology should be learnt and then translated into the domain
of traditional science where science content is learnt in a context that is
meaningful and finally, the process ends in society because you are able to
provide a decision or solution through an informed in-depth understanding of
the science content and an understanding of the relevant technology. In simple
terms, the curriculum of a progressive system should emanate from the
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challenges confronting society. School activities should be a reflection of societal

challenges.

A number of school-in-the community activities should be undertaken so as

to link the school with the community. For example, environmental projects
such as reclamation of wasted land, closures of dongas and environmental
awareness campaigns can be undertaken as community service, an engagement
that links community service and learning.

3.8 Assessment of Learners

Assessment is the process by which the quality of an individual‘s work or his/
her performance is judged. Generally, in schools, assessment of learning is
usually carried out by teachers on the basis of impression gained as they
observe pupils at work or by various kinds of tests given periodically.
Assessment of learners in progressive education incorporates some of these
principles of the traditional system. However, the assessment in progressivism
makes further demands on the teacher as is the case in the preparation for
progressive instruction.

Travers and Rebore (1987) believe in the consistency of the educator on the
matter of reporting of student progress if he/she is to be effective. They posit
that if one believes that the school is an agent for socialisation, then reporting
total progress is necessary. The following considerations need to be taken by
any sound progressive teacher:

‹ Conform to the school policy on reporting student progress

‹ Evaluation should be determined partly in terms of individual growth
and potential
‹ Have remedies in place to mitigate the severity of grades
‹ Intellectual achievement should be judged in relation to the individual
not the group
‹ Grades are relative and the progressive teacher does not want too
much ritual to develop around grades
‹ Student self evaluation is encouraged and pass and fail standards should
only be instituted where the school policy permits
‹ Subjective judgements are therefore more encouraged, for example,
substituting report cards for conferences

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Unit 3 The Progressive Teacher

Murdoch and Hornsby (2004) suggest that assessment within the Integrated
Curriculum should take a variety of forms. These may include the following
ongoing records, Proforma list of learning outcomes, observation of students
and so on. We discuss these and others.

Ongoing records include, among others, anecdotal records, annotated class

lists, checklists, running record sheets and teacher diaries and logs.

Proforma list of learning outcomes include records of progress towards

learning outcomes and checklist of stages in achieving learning outcomes.

Observation of students includes informal observation, checklists and notes,

watching work in progress, systematic observation and presentations.

Student records are student folios, student journals, work-in-progress,

folders, learning log-record and diaries.

Student self-assessment includes student-devised class and group projects,

self-assessment formats, group discussions and peer assessments.

It is therefore, clear that a lot of careful and tedious preparation is required in

the assessment of the learners. This though is in line with the philosophy of
progressive education of creating the “whole” person. If this is to be achieved,
then assessment should encompass all aspects of the student`s learning.

Activity 3.3
1. In groups, discuss the view that conferences are never a good substitute
? 2.
for written reports for comparative progress.
Discuss the applicability of the forms of assessment advocated for by
Murdoch and Hornsby (2004).

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3.9 Summary
In this unit we introduced you to the concept of progressive teacher. We
explained the concept progressive teacher/educator. In the unit we also
enumerated and explained the characteristics that a progressive teacher should
possess towards successful realisation of progressive education as propounded
by the founding philosophers of progressivism. We examined the qualities of
progressive education programmes and found them linked to the educator‘s
characteristics. We also talked about the factors to consider when selecting
subject content for a particular class. Furthermore, we explained the
importance of integrating of community service and learning into daily
curriculum. Finally, we exposed you to how reporting on learners‘ progress
through learner assessment is vital in progressive education.

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References
Aikenhead, G. (1991). Collaborative research and Development to Produce
Research on STS Course for School Science Retrieved from
[Link] on 28/06/
11
Barker, R.E, (1994). Progressive Teaching in the Primary School, Harare:
College Press.
Bishop, G. (1985). Curriculum Development: A Textbook for Students,
London: McMillan Publishers.
Brauner, C. J. and Burns, H. W. (1965). Problems in Education and
Philosophy, EngelwoodCliffs: Prentice-Hall Inc.
Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and Education, New York: McMillan Co.
Drake, S.M. and Reid, R. (2010). Integrated Curriculum: Increasing
relevance while maintaining accountability Downloaded from
[Link]
WW_Integrated_Curriculum.pdf on 4 May 2011.
Farrant, J. S. (1991). Principles and Practice of Education, London:
Longman.
Kremer, M. (2005) “Progressive Education, One Parent`s Journey,”
American Economic Review Papers and Proceedings, 93(2).
Lake, K. (2001). Integrated curriculum. School Improvement. Research
Series. [Link]/scpd/sirs/8/[Link] Retrieved 24 April 2011
Merickel, M. L. Integration of the Disciplines: Ten Methodologies for
Integration,Oregon State University Downloaded from h t t p : / /
[Link]/instruction/ed555/zone3/[Link] on 3 May 2011.
Murdoch, K. and Hornsby, D. (2004) ‘Planning Curriculum Connections
– Whole School Planning for Integrated Curriculum’, St Joseph’s
Primary School, Collingwood.
Travers, P.D. and Rebore, R.W. (1987). Foundations of Education:
Becoming a teacher, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

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Unit Four
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Progressive Teaching
Pedagogies

4.0 Introduction

I n this unit you are introduced to some of the concepts and strategies used
in progressive teaching. Apart from outlining current views on progressive
strategies, the rationale for using these strategies is outlined. Their strengths
and weaknesses are presented so that you can really appreciate their usefulness
in the classroom situation.
Progressive Teaching Methods BECS 202

4.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define progressive pedagogy

 outline the main strategies related to progressive pedagogy/teaching
 discuss the basic assumptions of progressive pedagogy
 discuss the strength and limitations of each strategy

4.2 Defining Key Terms

In this section we define the term pedagogy and progressive pedagogy.

4.2.1 Pedagogy
Pedagogy can be defined as the way students and teachers relate to one
another and how material is presented.

Proponents of feminist pedagogy and critical pedagogy seek to: fundamentally

alter the role of the teacher, transform classroom teaching methods and make
students self-conscious participants in the process of knowledge construction.

4.2.2 What is progressive pedagogy?

Progressive pedagogy can be identified through the following characteristics:

‹ It reflects self-consciously about teaching methods and the teacher-

student relationship.
‹ It encourages disagreement and celebrates difference—and treats the
classroom as a place where differences can be articulated and analysed
‹ It treats students as participants and not as spectators.
‹ It emphasises praxis: active inquiry and investigation.
‹ It seeks to develop a critical awareness of problems, power, and
inequalities.

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4.3 What Assumptions Guide Progressive

Pedagogies?
The progressive pedagogies assume that:

‹ the traditional classroom is a site of power, privilege, and hierarchy.

‹ teaching is a political act, teachers are political agents, and the methods
of instruction, choice of readings, nature of the assignments, and
forms of assessment have political and ideological significance.
‹ traditional approaches to teaching diminish student agency, limit the
number of perspectives that are raised, marginalise students who do
not conform to certain norms, and unduly separate the classroom from
the real world.

4.4 What are the Defining Characteristics of

Progressive Pedagogies?
Some of the characteristics defining of progressive pedagogy include:

‹ a classroom that is student-centred

‹ teaching methods that are inquiry driven and organized around problem-
solving and investigation
‹ teachers who are passionate about their subjects

4.5 Is there a Difference between Progressive

Pedagogies and other Forms Teaching?
All good teachers strive to create a nurturing and inclusive classroom
environment. But proponents of progressive pedagogies go further.

Progressive pedagogies:

‹ emphasise the psycho-social dimensions of teaching: empathy and

cultural sensitivity, but also their obverse: estrangement, cynicism, and
conflict
‹ place issues which centre on class, disability, ethnicity, gender, race,
and sexual orientation at the centre of inquiry

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‹ stress the value of experience—both the experience that comes from

hands-on research and community-based learning and from each
student’s personal experiences.

4.6 How Can the Teacher Integrate Progressive

Pedagogies and Constructivist Teaching into the
Classroom?
One of the primary goals of using constructivist teaching is that students learn
how to learn by giving them the training to take initiative for their own learning
experiences.

According to Audrey Gray, the characteristics of a constructivist classroom

are as follows:

‹ the learners are actively involved

‹ the environment is democratic
‹ the activities are interactive and student-centred
Jonassen (1999) has proposed a model for developing constructivist learning
environments (CLEs) around a specific learning goal. In CLEs, learning is
driven by the problem to be solved; students learn content and theory in
order to solve the problem. This is different from traditional objectivist teaching
where the theory would be presented first and problems would be used
afterwards to practice theory.

This goal may take one of several forms, from least to most complex that is:

‹ Question or issue
‹ Case study
‹ Long-term project
‹ Problem (multiple cases and projects integrated at the curriculum level)
The teacher facilitates a process of learning in which students are encouraged
to be responsible and [Link], you as the teacher need to:

‹ be self-conscious about your learning objectives and practice

‹ encourage critical reflection about teaching among your students: why
you chose the books, assignments, and evaluation methods that you
did
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Unit 4 Progressive Teaching Pedagogies

‹ organise sessions around problems and questions

‹ explore difficult issues in theory and practice
‹ create a participatory classroom, where students engage in active
learning, inquiry, and problem solving
‹ devise assessment techniques that include elements beyond homework
and testing

4.7 What are Some of the Effective Progressive

Pedagogical Strategies?
Effective progressive pedagogical strategies come in various forms. These
may include integration of the community and the use of teaching centres.
Below we discuss these and other strategies.

4.7.1 Integration of community based strategies

You need to incorporate a community-based learning project by involving
students in experiential learning that links theory, content, and professional
practice. Involve pupils in community based learning projects so that they
work collaboratively to improve public education through community and
school partnerships.

This can be enhanced by developing a Teaching Centre which is the go-to

place for practical advice about teaching. The progressive teacher can design
innovative courses, deliver scintillating, substantive lessons, and lead stimulating
discussions and labs. The teaching centre can also offer weekly workshops.
You have to design a library of teaching, job search, and publishing resource.
Jonassen (1999) recommends making the learning goals engaging and relevant
but not overly structured.

Depending on students’ prior experiences, related cases and scaffolding may

be necessary for support. You need to provide an authentic context for tasks,
plus information resources, cognitive tools, and collaborative tools.

4.7.2 Usefulness of the teaching centre to pupils and the

community
The teaching centre:

‹ sponsors research in the science of learning

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‹ supports improvements in the assessment of learning outcomes

‹ responds appropriately to shy, withdrawn, or disruptive students
‹ uses technology more effectively
‹ facilitates observations to be made on your teaching

4.8 Progressive Teaching and Development of Case

studies
4.8.1What is a case study?
It is an observation of the characteristics of an individual unit or a way of
organising social data for the purpose of viewing social reality. Any general
principle, academic idea and so on, will be made more interesting if seen from
the point of view of the individual it affects. The purpose of such study is to
understand the life cycle or an important part of the life cycle of the unit or see
the phenomenon in terms of its impact on individuals. The case study probes
deeply and analyses interactions between the factors that explain present status
or that influence change or growth with a view to establish generalisations
about the wider population to which that unit belongs. Case studies not only
make the topic more interesting, they also illuminate general principles very
effectively. As we will see later, students learn abstract general ideas best by
examining concrete examples. Pupils either engage in the very activities they
set out to observe or they stand aloof from the group activities they are
investigating. It begins in a world of action and contributes to it. The study
deals with such elements of community life as location, appearance, prevailing
economic activity, climate and natural resources, historical development, mode
of life, social structure, goals or life values and patterns, the individuals or
power groups that exert the dominant influence, and the impact of the outside
world. It also evaluates the social institutions that meet the basic human needs
of health, protection, making a living, education, religious expression, and
recreation. For example, students participation in playground activities,
teaching of particular programmes like approaches to teaching of religion to
different sectors, emerging technology, reasons contributing to unhappiness
and failure at school, lack of friends and playmates or why some students are
dependent learners.

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4.8.2 Stages involved in conducting case studies

Case studies consist of the following stages:

‹ Individual sessions in study skills and writing

‹ Students observe their informants of physical characteristics, social
qualities ,or behaviour
‹ Structured explorations of learning styles, personality and skills in the
work environment
‹ Interviews with subjects, relatives, friends, teachers, counsellors, and
others
‹ Interrogations of responses to test results obtained in stage two
‹ Interviews to test results obtained
‹ Recorded data from newspapers, schools courts, clinics, government
agencies, non-governmental organisations or other sources
‹ A single case study emphasises analysis in depth. Though it may be
fruitful in developing hypotheses to be tested, it is not directed toward
generalisations

4.8.3 Advantages of using the case study in progressive

teaching
There are several advantages in using case studies in progressive teaching.
Here are a few examples:

‹ Case studies are down to earth and attention holding, in harmony with
the reader’s own experience and thus provide a natural basis for
generalisation.
‹ They are capable of offering some support to alternative interpretations.
‹ They are a step to action.
‹ Their insights may be directly interpreted and put to use for individual
self -development.
‹ Case studies contribute to towards decision making and knowledge
itself.
‹ They are down to earth and attention holding.

4.8.4 Limitations of case studies

While there are those many advantages of using case studies in progressive
teaching, there are also many limitations. We list some of these below:
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‹ The case study method requires thoroughness and familiarity with existing
theoretical knowledge of the field of inquiry, and skillful in isolating the
significant variables from many that are irrelevant.
‹ Effects may be wrongly attributed to factors that are merely associated
rather than cause –and –effect related. For example, behaviour,
environmental factors and instructional methods.
‹ They are time consuming.
‹ Case studies are difficult to organise.
‹ Case studies are subject to bias and there is constant threat to objective
data-gathering and analysis.

Activity 1.1
1. How would you develop case studies in your teaching?
? 2. Discuss the applicability of case studies to your classroom situation.
3. What impediments are you likely to encounter in the use of case studies?

4.9 Use of Clips and Video Shows in the Classroom

After having shown the films, it is important for you to ask your students
questions about the roles and functions of key characteristics in the films.
Always ask questions that link the pupils to the issues that are pertinent to
their world. You could ask the pupils to write an assignment about issues
emanating from the films.

Apart from film shows, you could use the video shows. When you want to
show the video, it is important to decide whether you want the whole or part
of it. If there are sections of interest to you, you need to pause the VCR or
DVD to talk what the class has just seen. You need to preview the video you
intend to show, and decide on what you hope your pupils will learn from it.
Ask the pupils to look for the features you have highlighted as useful.

4.9.1 Importance of film clips and video show

Films provide visual context and thus bring another sense into the learning
experience. Use of film clips can engage students and stimulate discussion.
Films can put a concept into realistic context within the classroom. They can
bring an unlimited number of real situations into the artificial confines of class
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and they can demonstrate the concepts in real – life situation. It is important
to illustrate activities and therefore reinforce what the students would have
learnt.

4.9.2 Limitations of film clips and video show

‹ Video can cause self-consciousness of an inferior nature which can be
very difficult to rectify.
‹ Some people may develop guilty feelings, frustration or cynicism as a
defence mechanism.

4.10 Use of Drama, Role Play and Art as a Strategy

Dramatising and role play can be one and the same thing. Pupils prepare a
piece to present to the rest of the class. Good examples of drama can be on
teaching methods used by the teacher. Pupils take on roles and act out a given
situation. Drama and role play are very useful ways of developing inter-personal
skills among pupils. They are empathy activities where feelings and attitudes
of students are explored.

4.10.1 Ground rules for drama and role play

You have to be clear about what you are trying to achieve through role-play.
There is need therefore, to design each-role-play activity towards these ends.
If you want to develop a skill among the students, then you need to explain
any background information or techniques first. Alternatively, you could use
the discovery method and have the class learn from the role –play activity
itself.

You have to explain each role, and make instructions brief; the players will
have to fill the detail.

After a role-play activity, it is important to debrief your class in order to reach

some general conclusions. The whole class needs to be involved in the
debriefing exercise.

4.10.2 Advantages of drama and role play

There are many advantages of drama and role play in progressive teaching.
Some of these are:
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‹ They can lead pupils to involve themselves in a more personal way in

the scene they are playing.
‹ They thrive on improvisation, and not on elaborately prepared scripts.
‹ They encourage spontaneity, invention and self- expression, this leads
to self education.
‹ They permit the actualisation of problems that might very well remain
abstract.
‹ They successfully market your teaching.
‹ They deal with anxiety, challenges to your authority, and other classroom
issues.

4.11 Group Research Project

Pupils undertake a group research project whereby they work on a formal
research project which involves designing the study, constructing
measurements, selecting a sampling strategy, collecting data, analysing data,
and interpreting and communicating the results. Pupils research a topic and
can present their findings to the class.

In the classroom, the teacher’s role is to prompt and facilitate discussion.

In oral discussions, you present a “focus” question to students and allow an

open discussion on the topic.

Thus, the teacher’s main focus should be on guiding students by asking

questions that will lead them to develop their own conclusions on the subject.
Furthermore, students work primarily in groups, learning and knowledge are
interactive and dynamic. There is a great focus and emphasis on social and
communication skills, as well as collaboration and exchange of ideas. This is
contrary to the traditional classroom in which students work primarily alone,
learning is achieved through repetition, and the subjects are strictly adhered
to and are guided by a textbook.

Group research project as a teaching strategy involves the discovery and

understanding of a particular concept or topic. It is a collective search and
discovery under the teachers’ direction and guidance. Pupils are placed in
small or large groups for example of six to ten pupils. It may also involve the
entire class, divided into small groups and each group performs a different
tasks from other groups or similar tasks. The teacher gives clear instructions

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to each group so that it is aware of what it is expected to do and how to

perform the tasks.

Each group may be tasked to carry out a task or series of tasks. You may give
each group to solicit specific information. Options are created for the group.
For example, in the teaching of English language, you may ask students to
research on words difficult to spell. You will recognise that students often
respond well to the trust implied in giving them a unique task to carry out for
the class.

If each group has the same task or question, it is important to instill a sense of
competition among the groups. This can be done by judging which of the
groups can do it best or faster or simply to compare the different approaches.

When the groups report back to the whole class, you and the class can evaluate
the work. Each group can be asked to present its work followed by comments
from other groups and you.

4.11.1 Planning for group learning activities

A progressive teacher always decides on the objectives of group activities in
order to make sure that these can be achieved with the use of group learning.
You should adopt those activities that your pupils can compete with minimum
help from you. It is important to start with short activities first, and that you
record the results of group learning for your assessment.

You also have to consider the sizes of groups and relate them to the activity to
be done. Larger groups are more likely to:

‹ draw on the experiences of the members

‹ interpret the task correctly
‹ be slower in the decision –making process and more difficult to arrive
at consensus
‹ have conflicting opinions
Meanwhile, smaller groups are more likely to:
‹ have more activity
‹ arrive at consensus more easily
‹ have minimum conflicting opinions

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Taking into consideration of the variables above and their implications for
effectiveness, it is up to you to decide on the sizes of groups to achieve particular
group projects.

4.11.2 Membership of groups

There are many ways you can adopt in deciding the membership of groups.
You may randomly select, adopt the friendship grouping or use achievement
or experience grouping, proximity grouping, deliberate mix based on aspects
like gender background age or affiliation. What is of paramount is whatever
grouping method you come up with, you have to consider the advantages and
disadvantages of each.

4.11.3 Group management techniques

Management of groups is very important.

The instructions to the groups should be very clear, that is, questions for
discussion, time limit and so on.

It is vital that you visit the groups as they work to check on their progress.

Someone should report on the work of each group at a plenary session.

It is vital to reflect on any outcomes, and to summarise what you hope your
students have learned from the group activities.

4.11.4 Advantages of group research activities in

progressive pedagogy
The following are some of the advantages of group work:

‹ It is active and inter-active not dependent on one person.

‹ It gives the responsibility of learning to the student
‹ It creates a chance for students to use previously acquired knowledge.
‹ Students who do not always contribute to the whole class can be coaxed
into contributing to a small group.
‹ Students get to know each other better.
‹ It gives the teacher an opportunity to make use of the views and
experiences of students.

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‹ Students reflect on their experiences and share it with others; it involves

the total person, heart, will and intelligence.
‹ Students are taught to listen to other positions and open them to various
positions.

4.11.5 Considerations to be made

However, for the student to be provoked into discussions, you have to consider
how a particular question assignment, or issue affects the pupils life and thinking,
to which experiences it is related and how it might change their perceptions.

Although students are intellectually directed, it is important for you, to facilitate

and develop awareness of students as persons with definite responsibilities to
grow intellectually and with tolerance for different views.

One possible deterrent for this strategy is that, due to the emphasis on group
work, the ideas of the more active students may dominate the group’s
conclusions.

4.12 Group Activities

There are many group activities that you can adopt in order to progressively
have effective learning. Let us look at some below.

4.12.1Peer Tutoring and checking

According to Petty (1993), peer tutoring is a method that involves students
helping or teaching each other. It allows the faster learners to teach the slower
ones, a chance to query misconceptions without embarrassment. Peer tutoring
can be easily done when you want your class to improve their memory skills
on, the parables of Jesus; for example, peer-checking involves pupils checking
each others written exercises or other’s work in pairs.

4.12.2 Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a method of producing a large number of creative ideas for
subsequent evaluation. Before using the brainstorm method, you, need to
explain it very carefully. According to Petty (1993) the following are the rules
of brainstorming:

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‹ all ideas are welcome

‹ the group aims for quantity not quality
‹ judging ideas is not allowed
‹ ideas are common property, improving previous ideas is encouraged
When you brainstorm for ideas, it is important to write them down on the
board or flip-chart. There is consensus for the best ideas and finally, you as
the teacher evaluate. It is possible for you to use this method as a way into
topics that you think students have ideas. Some of these topics include
indigenous language, indigenous trees and their use, role of religion in shaping
people’s values and so on.

4.12.3 Supervised student practice in progressive learning.

This is an obligatory teaching method. It gives students an opportunity to
develop their skills, and the teacher an opportunity to get feedback, and so
discover whether the students have learned anything and whether this learning
requires improvement.

If student practice is to be used effectively, before the activity starts, the students
must have been adequately introduced to the activity so that they understand
the aim of the work they have been set.

The activities must be at the right level for the entire student.

Students should have had the opportunity to ask questions about the activity.

If the activity consists of a series of tasks, these should usually be available to

the students in a written form and broken down into subtasks.

4.13 Managing the Practice of an Intellectual Skill

During the first crucial few minutes, describe the activity with care giving it to
students in written form. When everyone seems clear, summarise the activity
before they start. For almost any activity, each student’s work should now be
checked as soon as possible after the start of the practice. Once you have
established that all students are working along roughly the right lines, your
role as teacher is to pause and encourage and to be permanently available to
help students with any difficulties and to continue the checking process. In
general, when correcting students’ work, try to get them to do as much of the
correcting as possible. Never ridicule a student’s work.
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When correcting student’s work, ask if they have any questions or difficulties
and listen carefully to their reply.

Try to get the students to recognise the root cause of their difficulty, using
questioning if necessary and you should explain and demonstrate how the
error should be corrected.

4.14 The Plenary

Students usually need to reflect on the activity, to discuss it and have common
difficulties cleared up.

Having discovered the problem, ask them if they can see the solution.

4.15 Managing a Practical Activity

Practicals are enjoyable and active hands on experience. As soon as the activity
is underway, check whether each individual or group has started correctly.
The plenary session is often very important in practical work. When teaching
a physical skill, it is important not to teach too much at once. A complex task
is best broken into a chain of steps that are each learned separately.

4.16 Experimental Work in Science

Students require an opportunity to use the scientific idea you are teaching to
solve problems and to answer questions verbally and on paper. When used
well, experimental work is active, fun, enlightening and engaging.

It is crucial to be clear about your objectives when using experimental work.

These may include learning games and active learning methods, quiz,
exhibitions, modified television/radio games, treasure hunt, spectacles, and
ice breakers.

4.16.1 Games and active learning methods

Games and active learning methods may be centred on some of the following
and they could be:

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‹ about a particular example of a scientific fact, principle or concept

‹ on how scientific investigations are carried out
‹ on how to interpret data for example, how relationships between
variables are discovered
‹ on how to deal with anomalous results
‹ on how to carry out error analysis and so on
Games can produce intense involvement, and a quality of concentration, no
other teaching method can match. The increase in interest and motivation
produced by a short session of game–playing can produce positive feelings
towards the subject.

You can ask students to match or play cards. Similar games can be devised
for students to practice classifying for example, metaphor, simile and
personification.

4.16.2 The quiz

Quizzes are usually arranged as a competition between groups, they are a
popular means of checking learning or enlivening revision. Most commonly,
the teacher asks the questions, alternatively, students can make up questions
for their competitors to answer.

4.16.3 The exhibition

You give groups the same topic or different subtopics, and they must produce
wall posters and other exhibits to demonstrate their ideas and the key points.

4.16.4 Modified Television/ radio games

You may ask students to play an adaptation of a well – known television,
computer or radio game show.

4.16.5 Treasure hunt

A search for information can become a simple game by making it into a race
or a competition e.g. to find for as many examples of the use of percentages
as you can in your newspaper.

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4.16.6 Spectacles
Some topics can be looked at from different points of view, or by using different
spectacles.

4.16.7 Ice- breakers

Games or activities are often used to introduce members of a new class to
each other.

4.16.8 Using games in practice

Games are universally enjoyed and encourage real attention to ask, and intrinsic
interest in the subject.

4.17 Emphasis on Psycho – Social Demonstration

Learning can be said to fall into three broad categories or domains. These
domains were first suggested by B.S. Bloom and are now widely accepted.
Learners need to develop or change their values, attitudes or beliefs. This
requires them to clarify, adapt or change their opinion-and perhaps, as a result,
their preferred behaviour. Students can embark on meaningful connections
between new material and previous experience. For these questions to be
effective it is critical that the teacher focus on teaching content that is useful for
participants. The large numbers of varied personal characteristics as well as
prevalence of learning problems in children today also need to be considered.
You are encouraged to use a mixed approach that incorporates components
of constructivist learning along with other approaches, including more guided
teaching strategies, would better meet the learning needs of the majority of
students in a classroom by accounting for differences between learning styles
and capacities. Pupils are naturally curious about the world, and giving them
the tools to explore it in a guided manner serve to give them a stronger
understanding of it. The two components of critical exploration are curriculum
development and pedagogy. In this method teachers find ways to encourage
their students to explore the subject matter and express their thoughts on the
material.

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4.18 Field trips

Field trips allow students to put the concepts and ideas discussed in class in a
real-world context. Field trips would often be followed by class discussions
Integrate simulations into your [Link] students might act out an issue
that the class can analyse. Thus, in a social work class, students might dramatise
the ethical issues raised by gift-giving or continuing contact with clients. Because
existing knowledge schemata are explicitly acknowledged as a starting point
for new learning, constructivist approaches tend to validate individual and
cultural differences and diversity Mind Mapping. In this activity, students list
and categorize the concepts and ideas relating to a topic.

Guided discovery, a mix of direct instruction and hands-on activity, rather

than pure discovery has to be employed. The teacher can present students
with a “focus” question and allows an open discussion on the topic.

4.19 Discussion
Discussion is used as a method of teaching more often than you might realize.
It involves a free –flowing conversation, giving students an opportunity to
express their opinions and ideas, and to hear those of their peers. Some
teachers use short spontaneous discussions as a natural extension of their
questioning technique.

4.19.1 When to use discussions

Discussions are generally considered to be of value in the following situations:
‹ Where the students ‘opinions and experiences need to be known by
the teacher or are valuable and interesting to other students in the group.
‹ Where the topic involves values, attitudes, feelings and awareness, rather
than exclusively factual material. For example, while trying to develop
or change attitudes in class environment.
‹ Where it is necessary to give students practice in forming and evaluating
opinions. For example, discussing some effects of unemployment,
drought and hunger in society.
‹ Uncontroversial fact based topics are not suitable for discussion –based
learning. You should encourage pupils to develop their own informed
opinions about the material being studied. This is where the discussion
comes into its own.
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‹ Well- managed discussions are interesting, observing and active. They

produce a safe environment for students to examine their opinions, and
where necessary change them.

Activity 4.2
1. Which topics would you recommend for discussion in your teaching
? 2.
situation?
Discuss the strengths and limitations of using the strategies that have
been discussed above.
3. How best can you limit the effects of the cited limitations?

4.19.2 Planning a discussion

For anything other than a short ad hoc discussion, the discussion leader needs
to have objectives that he or she hopes to achieve during the session. Once
these are decided on, a plan must be produced .The plan may take the form
of factual material to start the discussion off, and ordered list of key questions.
A well structured discussion critically examines evidence, beliefs and values
and then asks students to form opinions based on this. Some discussions are
open ended and you will need to be more interested in listening to the students‘
ideas than in achieving predetermined learning.

4.19.3 How to lead a discussion and the style.

First, you consider the sitting arrangement. Second, present relevant factual
material. Third, ask a question, and finally, ask students to give fuller answers.
Discussions are like a game with comments passed back and forth like this:
teacher- student-teacher-student-teacher. Ideally, a discussion is non-
competitive and exploratory. There should be a cooperative attempt to come
to a mutually held conclusion and members of the group should not attack
each other’s views. Unlike a debate, a discussion should leave people free to
speculate and to change their point of view.

Discussions are fun and they involve students in high-order cognitive skills
such as evaluation and can be used to develop students’ opinions, attitudes
and values. They can be left open but usually need to be structured.

Pupils individually perform an experiment and then come together as a class

to discuss the results. Hands-on activities encourage students to manipulate
their environments or a particular learning tool.
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A class discussion technique is used in all of the methods described above.

It is one of the most important distinctions of progressivity/constructivist
teaching methods.

4.20 Whole Class Teaching Strategy

This strategy entails the teacher creating a dynamic mix of teacher talk
constantly peppered with bouts of: Assertive questioning and student
demonstration.

What is assertive questioning?

It is a method which is intended to maximise participation, active learning and

the linking of new learning with old.

Firstly, a question is asked or a problem set. The question needs to be clear,

concise, and sufficiently searching to take the students a minute or so to answer.
The question needs to be simple enough to be largely attainable by nearly all
the members of the class, but open and high order so that the more able are
stretched. The following steps can be followed:

Step 1 Ask the questions

Step 2 Monitor the reasoning

Step 3 Check for completion

Step 4 Get a number of answers

Step 5 The class scrutinises the answers

Step 6 The teacher confirms the correct answer

Step 7 Reinforcement thanks and praise.

Student demonstration or student answers

Secondly, the teacher sets the tasks. Students are given time to consider their
approach to this problem. A student is chosen to demonstrate the answer.

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Advantages and limitations

The main advantage of assertive questioning and student demonstration is

that by comparison with other teacher centred methods they involve the students
a great deal more and so ensure concentration and provide you with feedback.
If students work in groups, they get the help from group members rather than
individualistic efforts. It requires the teacher‘s confidence.

Activity 4.3
1. Discuss the implications of using games, quizzes, exhibitions treasure
? hunt, spectacles, field trips and class discussions to each category of
learners in your own context
2. Which ones would you prefer most? Justify.

4.21 Summary
Learning is not the same as remembering, it is an active meaning making
process. Only information that has been structured and organised by the student
can pass into the long term memory and can be used in real life. This organisation
process is helped by doing rather than listening. Learning is motivated by a
desire to succeed rather than fear for failure. In this unit we looked at the
underlying assumptions of progressive pedagogy and discussed a wide range
of strategies which the student should take with latitude to experiment in order
to take as much responsibility as possible for learning, assessment and
improvement. We teach unconsciously by setting examples. In Unit 5, we
look at Special Needs Education.

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References
Bain, K. (2004). What the Best College Teachers Do. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
Jonassen, D. H. (1999). Constructing learning environments on the web:
Engaging students in meaningful learning. EdTech 99: Educational
Technology Conference and Exhibition 1999: Thinking Schools,
Learning Nation.
Holt, J. (1983). How Children Learn, London: Penguin.
Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., and Clark, R. E. (2006). “Why minimal guidance
during instruction does not work: an analysis of the failure of
constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based
teaching”. Educational Psychologist 41 (2): 75–86. doi:10.1207/
s15326985ep4102_1.
Mayer, R. (2004). “Should there be a three-strikes rule against pure discovery
learning? The case for guided methods of instruction”. American
Psychologist 59(1), 14-19
Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1969). The Psychology of the child. New York:
Basic Books, Inc.
Petty, G. (2004). Teaching Today. Cheltenham: Nelson Thames Ltd.
Rodgers, C. (1994). Freedom to Learn (3rd ed.) New York: Merrill.
S Mintz S@ Columbia edu 212-854-01066
Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher
psychological processes. Cambridge: MA, Harvard University Press.
Walker,M. et al (2008). “A bright spark: open teaching of science using
Faraday’s lectures on candles”. Journal of Chemical Education 85
(1).

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Unit Five
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Special Needs Education

Catering for Individual Needs in
the Teaching and Learning
Process
5.0 Introduction

I n Unit 4, we focused on progressive teaching strategies and a number of

these strategies were presented. In this unit the basic assumption underlying
the contents that we present is the fact that all children have a right to education
that is appropriate to their needs. In view of this, one important consideration
in the children with special needs is the issue of their placement. In this we
begin with a brief explanation of the slow learner. We explain the terms learning
difficulty, attention memory, language, special orientation, fine motor control
and sequencing. This followed by signs and identification of a student with
learning disabilities. Problem areas of these students are well explicated as
well as strategies for remediation.
Progressive Teaching Methods BECS 202

The gifted talented student is presented next with explanations of the intelligent
insightful genius creativity and talented students. This is followed by signs and
methods for identifying gifted students. Strategies to be employed within the
mainstream are well explicated. The types of disabilities are presented next.
Causes and signs of the disabilities are presented followed by educational
considerations and strategies for handling the different types of disabilities.

The last section of the unit deals with record maintenance for the three categories
of special needs education.

5.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
 explain clearly what is meant by a slow learner, a gifted student and a
student with physically disabilities
 identify problem areas associated with learning disabilities, giftedness
and handicapped
 describe educational considerations and or strategies to be employed
when dealing with special needs students
 analyse the challenges and problems faced by students with special
needs
 evaluate educational considerations to be used in remedying students
 discuss the main functions of records in relation to special needs

5.2 Slow Learners

According to Hallahan and Kaufman (1997), slow learners are those students
who require special education and related services if they are to realise their
potential. They have learning difficulties and are remarkably different from
most children in one or more ways. Slow learners are students with learning
disabilities or difficulty. Learning disability is therefore the most widely used
term to describe one’s inability to score process or produce information. Zindi
(1997) views learning disabilities as different kinds of problems that the students
face which often make learning difficult. National Advisory Committee (1994)
in Hunt and Marshall (1904) view learning disabilities as a disorder in one or
more of the basic psychological processes involved in understanding or using
language spoken or written. This may manifest itself in an imperfect ability to
listen, think, read, write, spell or to do mathematical calculations, are largely
dependent upon each pupil can respond.
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Another view is that a student has learning disability if he/she does not achieve
at the proper age and ability levels in one or more of several specific areas
when provided with appropriate learning experiences and has discrepancy
between achievement and intellectual experiences and has discrepancy between
achievement and intellectual ability in one or more of the following areas:

‹ oral expression
‹ listening comprehension
‹ basic reading skill
‹ reading comprehension
‹ written expression
‹ Mathematical calculations and reasoning, active orientation in which
flexible grouping takes place based on the activity
The performance of students with learning disabilities is often tied to their
ability to receive or express information, active orientation. The students
demonstrate a discrepancy to their ability or a gap, between achievement or
their performance in school and their intellectual ability or potential (Hallahan
and Kaufman, 1997). The learning disabled student is a student with normal
intelligence, but has perceptual, conceptual or perceptual motor difficulties
(Levine, 1986). These difficulties are frequently manifested as a difficulty in a
specific subject area. They may have mental retardation, emotional or
behavioural disorders, and physical disabilities, disorders of communication,
autism, traumatic brain injury and impaired sight.

Their exceptionality may involve sensory, physical, cognitive emotional or

communication abilities or any combination of these (Wallace, 1983; Zindi,
1997; Macht, 1983).

According to Nancy and Marshal (1994), two concepts are important to the
student with learning disabilities:

(a) diversity of characteristics

(b) need for special education

Exceptionality may vary greatly in cause, degree and effect on educational

progress.

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Activity 5.1
1. What are learning disabilities?
? 2.
3.
In your own words, define the term slow learner.
Which are the problem areas for students with learning disabilities?

5.2.2 Causes of learning disabilities

Zindi (1997) indicates the following factors as causes of learning disabilities:

‹ brain injuries
‹ generic factors
‹ nutrition
‹ environmental deprivation
‹ school attributed problems
These disabilities can be put into categories of learning disabilities. According
to Hallahan and Kaufman (1997), Zindi (1997), Hunt and Marshall (1994),
these factors are as follows:
‹ Attention: Students find it difficult to keep their attention focuses on
something for long
‹ Memory: difficulty in retrieving information from memory
‹ Language: Students have difficulties in expressing themselves and find
it difficult to remember things they have heard or have real difficult in
interpreting complicated verbal instructions
‹ Special orientation: students may find it difficult to process information
visually despite the fact that they are very good at spoken language
‹ Fine motor control: Students have difficulty in coordinating fine muscular
movement hence will also find it difficult to shape letters quickly
‹ Sequencing: being unable to keep items in their logical sequence
‹ Communication disorders: severe communication problems interfere
with academic achievement, self- esteem and social adjustment

Activity 5.2
1. With reference to the Zimbabwean context, which are the main causes
? 2.
of learning disabilities?
Discuss the categories of learning disabilities according to Hallahan
and Kaufman (1997), Zindi (1997), Hunt and Marshall (1994).

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5.3 Signs and Identification

The most obvious way of identifying a slow learner or a student with learning
disability is when a person is underachieving in school. In secondary schools
these difficulties are manifested as a difficulty in a specific subject area usually
in mathematics, sciences, commercials and arts. They exhibit a deficit in one
of the following:

‹ perception
‹ conceptualisation
‹ memory
‹ attention
‹ language
‹ impulse control
Hallahan and Kauffman (1997) observed that in secondary schools, slow
learners appear to be unmotivated and careless, they hand in incomplete papers
and they get in trouble for interacting impulsively with other students. They
are also disorganised, misplace books and are easily frustrated with tasks
that are too difficult. They misread social situations and say and do wrong
things unknowingly and seem to need extra prodding to work independently
to complete homework.

Zindi (1997) came up with thirteen characteristics of a slow learner or student

with learning disabilities:

‹ Hyperactivity shown through the student‘s inability to sit well;

‹ Poor coordination: Student does not connect with what he or she needs;
‹ They also experience disorders of attention, short attention span and
the student is easily distracted and she/he may show a tendency of
repeating a word or phrase;
‹ Disorders of visual or auditory memory and cognition, makes
inappropriate responses, unable to organise, thinking or come to a
relative conclusion and also slow to form concepts;
‹ Very little use of language or does not talk at all;
‹ Confused word order;
‹ difficulty in knowing the meaning of words;
‹ Difficulty in understanding simple commands and directions, particularly
prepositions, pronouns number operations and so on;
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‹ Points or gestures to make his wants known;

‹ Use inappropriate grammar;
‹ Sequences sounds and consonants incorrectly;
‹ Does not talk at all.

Activity 5.3
1. Discuss the specific areas in which learners with learning disabilities
? 2.
exhibit deficiencies.
Discuss the main dictates of a student with learning disabilities.

5.4 Educational Consideration or Strategies to be

Employed During Instruction
Hunt and Marshal (1994), Hallahan and Kaufman (1997) suggest the following
strategies:

‹ During instructional delivery the teacher to find ways that will avoid the
humiliation of students with learning disabilities;
‹ Use of terminology that makes sense to the learning disables so as to
improve those with language difficulty;
‹ Focus on individualised instruction;
‹ Application of multi sensory approaches and emphasis on working with
academic materials that assist in the correction of a student’s problems
in the sensory system;
‹ Formulation of child directed and structured programmes where most
of the activities are directed to the teacher;
‹ Provision of remedial and compensatory programmes divorced from
the activities of regular classrooms;
‹ Giving clear instructions.
According to Zindi (1997) and Wallace (1983) teachers should provide:

‹ the right choice of teaching materials

‹ locally made audio visual materials
‹ career education to prepare the learning disables for the job market

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‹ schedule and group students to maximize educational and social

opportunities
‹ review or preview concepts
‹ enhance comprehension
‹ shorten and simplify verbalisation
‹ repeat main points or paraphrasing them into simpler forms
‹ check student comprehension of instruction often
‹ ask the slow learner to demonstrate that he or she understands the
assignment
‹ present students with strategies they have not learned: strategies that
non-disabled students seem to learn without specific instructions, for
example, use of contextual and graphic clues
‹ use self-monitoring strategies to provide students with new ways of
thinking about their performance and reinforce that students need to
use metcognition procedures
‹ give abundant reward for the first few steps made by the pupils which
are recognised to be in the right direction
Zigmond (1990) developed two models both which contain four components
as follows:

‹ instruction in basic skills

‹ instruction in survival skills
‹ completion of courses required for graduation
‹ planning for life after high school
Students need to be taught strategies that will help them to learn by helping
them acquire information from written materials. There is need to ensure
students achieve certain performance goals before moving on to the net stage.

Activity 5.4
1. Which strategies do you consider to be important?
? 2. Relate Zigmond’s models and strategies discussed earlier.

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5.5 The Gifted Child

Wallace (1983) views a gifted pupil as a child who has outstanding potential
or ability to any one area or in several areas so that she or he needs more than
the teacher usually provides in the way of extension activities and resources.
Zindi (1997) views giftedness as a result of one possessing above average
and superior general intellectual ability. If one has the necessary elements for
outstanding achievement in any field capacity, zeal and power to do laborious
work is said to be gifted. Hallahan and Kaufman (1997) view gifted and
talented students as students who:

‹ give evidence of high performance capability in several areas

‹ require services or activities not ordinarily provided by the school
Giftedness is general intellectual ability, specific academic aptitude, creative
thinking ability in the fine arts and leadership ability (Hallahan and Kauffman,
1997).

Hund and Marshal (1994) view giftedness as one end of a continuum of

mental ability called intelligence.

Giftedness includes creativity and task commitment as well as above average

intellectual ability per ser with intelligent quotient of which is higher than those
of an average student. Gifted students should show the potential for making a
remarkable and valued contribution to the human condition.

Rendezuille and Rers (1991) in Zindi (1997), view giftedness as a three ring
concept which includes high ability and high test commitment as shown below:

Creativity
Task
commitment
Above average
ability

Fig. 5.1

Adapted from Zindi (1997)

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A gifted student does possess special talents which may include academic
talents, artistic talent, leadership and psychomotor ability. Hallahan and
Kauffman (1994) refer to gifted students as possessing:

‹ precocity which is remarkably early development

‹ insightful-separating relevant information
‹ a particular aptitude or capacity in any area with IQ of above average
‹ creativity which refers to the ability to express and novel useful ideas to
sense, and elucidate important relationship
‹ talent ordinarily used to indicate a special aptitude ability or
accomplishment

Activity 5.5
1. What do you understand by the term giftedness?
? 2.
3.
Distinguish between giftedness and talent.
Discuss the key elements of giftedness.

5.5.1 Signs and identification of gifted students

A number of signs are manifested by gifted students which can be used to
identify these gifted students. Means of identification may include the use of
an (IQ) Intelligent Quotient based on group or individual tests standardised
tests; achievement test schools, teacher nominations and student’s work
evaluation can be administered.

Activity 5.6
1. With reference to your school, discuss the methods that you would
? adopt in the identification of gifted children. Justify the use of such
methodologies.

5.5.2 Signs of giftedness

According to Zindi (1997), Hunt and Marshal (1997), the following are general
signs of potential high achievement:

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‹ curious, asks many questions generate many ideas

‹ self -motivated, requires little external direction
‹ likes to organise people and structure activities
‹ impatient with routine tasks
‹ vocabulary beyond form level
‹ quick and accurate recall of factual information
‹ generalises learning from one extensive concrete example
‹ capable of intense concentration on tasks of interest to him or her
‹ resourceful, knows where to find information
‹ High performance in a particular subject area
‹ assumes leadership roles
‹ individualistic, does not fear for being different
‹ displays a keen sense of honour
‹ intellectual playfulness
There are a number of problems associated with giftedness. Some of the
problems include the following:
(a) At times, teachers are found being unable to provide more challenging
work.
(b) There is boredom as a result of the student being exposed to routine
work.
(c) There can also be disruption of lessons, disrespect for teachers and
general indiscipline.

Activity 5.7
1. How does giftedness affect students?
? 2. Is there a relationship between giftedness and emotional and social
development? Justify your answer.

5.5.3 Strategies for teaching gifted and talented students

Gifted behaviour students are in part superior in some way and exhibit abilities
and sensitivities that may allow them to express themselves in special ways
learn quickly, be self-sufficient or understand their own and others feelings
motivation and strength and weaknesses (Hallahan and Kauffman, 1977).
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The teacher needs to:

‹ Reflect on what teaching practices best encourage the potential of those

students they find that the content process and learning environment
that comprise best.
‹ It is important that learners experience concepts at higher level of
thinking, interact with real life problems and general products that require
integrating skills and understanding.
‹ Provide contracts by facilitating the provision of individualised
exploration.
‹ Facilitate independent study so that students conduct an independent
study on a topic.
‹ Allow students to conduct investigations in areas of interest.
‹ Encourage students to learn from their mistakes, experimenting, being
original and to have a sense of self discipline which will reduce anxiety.
‹ Encourage individuality, curiosity, adventure and self -confidence.
‹ Encourage the development of imagination and creative thinking.
‹ Encourage the gifted to interact with creative, successful and
accomplished role models in their areas of interest.
‹ Offer enrichment activities; provide ability grouping and acceleration
lessons to gifted students.
‹ Have a personal commitment to and a professional understanding and
acceptance of the need to provide differentiated individual and group
assignments in the classroom.
‹ Provide a background of materials and experiences to which each pupil
can respond at a level appropriate for him/her (Wallace, 1989; Wheeldall
and Merret, 1989).
The specific difference in planning curriculum activities for able students lies
not in the approach, but in the pace and depth of the learning experience
presented. According to Hunt and Marshall (1993), the learning pace and
depth are largely dependent upon:

‹ the quality of the teachers questioning

‹ the quality and complexity of the pupils activity
‹ the availability of adequate resources
‹ the removal of unnecessary repetitive practice

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The learning environment should have an active orientation in which flexible

grouping take places based on the activity, the process and the product desired.
The teacher needs to continually assess progress and adapt to environments
accordingly by setting work which is at appropriate level. Always make use
of mastery learning to provide time for advanced study. Ensure that students
move sequentially through a body of knowledge at their own pace. Use the
problem as the basis of students learning by providing experiences at the four
higher levels of Blooms Taxonomy of Education per se application, analysis,
synthesis and evaluation.

‹ Provide content of learning which is rooted in basic principles such as

relevance, purposefulness and transferability;
‹ Promote cognition and met cognition by balancing creative and critical
thoughts;
‹ The product of learning to center on concepts and issues making use of
multiple modes of expression and reflect real life problems for which
real audiences are interested in the solutions (Wheeldall and Merrett,
1989).

Activity 5.9
1. Discuss the strategies you would use to modify the curricular for the
? 2.
needs of a student who is gifted.
Critically examine the major characteristics on which the education of
gifted students should be based on.

5.5.4 Problems associated with giftedness

Giftedness is associated with several challenges. Below, we present some of
these problems in brief:

‹ Boredom as a result of students failing to get programmes that match

their talents;
‹ Disruption of lessons, disrespect for leaders and general indiscipline by
students as a result of boredom;
‹ Classmates beginning to isolate gifted students whom they see as show-
offs, egoistic, rude, domineering, arrogant and snobbish;
‹ Emotional upheaval such depression withdrawal and hostility when the
gifted fell unwanted;
‹ Teachers being unable to provide more challenging work.
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According to Obama (1991), most problems associated with giftedness stem

from a slow understanding of the superior intellect and talents of gifted students
which in turn leads to a lack of proper management and organisation of
programmes for the mutual benefit of the gifted and the rest of the society.

Activity 5.10
1. Why might students who are gifted face particular problems in the
? 2.
transition to adolescence?
Where do problems of giftedness emanate from?

5.6 The Physically Handicapped

Hunt and Marshal (1994) view physical disability as a condition that
incapacitates to some degree, the skeleton, muscular and neurological systems
of the body.

Hallahan and Kauffman (1997) define children with physical disabilities as

those whose physical limitations or health problems interfere with school
attendance or learning to such an extent that special services are required.

Persons who are classified as physically handicapped have varying mobility

disabilities which may affect the effectiveness in coping with emotional, social
and academic expectations of both the school and society. It is a condition in
which one or more of the body’s systems are affected by disease or condition
that are interfering with the student’s ability to perform in a regular classroom
setting.

There are many causes of physical handicap which include body injuries,
head injuries, accidents, mobility problems, sensory defects, being crippled,
visual impairment, muscular or neuromuscular impairment skeleton defects
and health problems inhibiting normal activity. Health impairment debilitates
the body’s system by disease or other condition.

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Activity 5.10

? 1. Discuss the relationship between physical disabilities and learning

disabilities.

5.6.1 Signs and identification

Some of the signs associated with physical disabilities are:

‹ gout
‹ paralysis of the limbs
‹ emotional stress
‹ Problems with the mobility of muscles
‹ limping over active behaviour
‹ short attention span
‹ clumsiness resulting in constant unexplainable falls
‹ regular headaches
‹ inaudible speech
‹ poor vision

Activity 5.11
1. Do you think physical disability has a direct effect on intellectual ability?
? 2.
Why or why not?
How can knowing the cause and treatment of a student’s condition be
useful for a teacher?

5.6.2 Strategies and educational consideration

In this section, we look at some of the strategies and educational considerations
we have to make when teaching the physically handicapped students:

‹ Teachers of physically handicapped students require continued thought

and ingenuity to ensure that the child receive the best possible education
while she is also receiving the necessary assistance which will enable
him/her to cope with the limitations imposed by his/her disability.
‹ The teacher needs to develop methods that will take into account the
individual differences of physically handicapped children during their
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teaching, for example, time considering for those in wheelchairs or

without arms reinforcement, peer teaching, and general close
observations.
‹ The teacher needs to ensure that these students are adapting to normal
school environment and should be provided when it is absolutely
necessary.
‹ Provide additional time for completion of tasks when such need is
necessary.
‹ Ensure order to encourage good behaviour.
‹ Praise to be given when the physically handicapped student shows a
good performance.
‹ Teaching materials should include stand up tables, chair boards,
typewriters, book holders, moveable chalkboards and pencil holders
which should be specifically adapted to suit individual needs.
‹ Strategies vary greatly depending on the type and severity of their
conditions. Some students may require specialised assistance or need
additional materials to manage the sensory learning and behavioural
disorders that can accompany some physical disabilities.
‹ Alter material activity or curriculum.
‹ Provide a comprehensive picture of available employment opportunities
as well as assistance in identifying and obtaining any adaptive equipment
needed to perform the job.
‹ Educating other students of the challenges being faced by individuals
with physical disabilities.
Many people avoid interacting with people with physical disabilities because
they don’t know how to act around them. There is need to identify and
appreciate feelings grief and disappointment of these students Zindi (1997)
Hunt and Marshal (1994).

Activity 5.12
1. Critically examine the signs that are associated with students with
? 2.
disabilities.
Discuss the strategies you would adopt for pupils who are physically
challenged.

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5.7 Records
Records are an important part of every teaching process and these are needed
for different purposes. For both the slow learner and gifted student, records
play a significant role.

5.7.1 Slow learner

Identify students with learning disabilities by collecting achievement information
by:

‹ Recording observations of their social and emotional behaviours

‹ Sharing this information with special education teacher or counsellor
‹ Have a student’s cumulative folder for previous performance if possible
‹ Have student’s cumulative folder which contains attendance and
retention data and group achievement test results that provide a
comparison of your students of the same level
‹ Discuss with former teachers so as to get additional information about
the student’s ability to meet regular class demands necessary for
instructional modifications and students’ social adjustment
‹ Make use of criterion and norm-referenced tests to analyse strengths
and needs

5.7.2 Gifted students

In pursuit of ideas, information and materials to use in self directed learning
activities, there is need to have a record on materials that are available, including
your books, journals, publications, political and economic atlases, career files,
subject related dictionaries, periodicals indexes, bibliographic references and
databases.

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Activity 5.12
1. Justify the importance of record keeping for both groups of learners.
? 2.
3.
What challenges are encountered in the preparation of such records?
Suggest means of circumventing the identified challenges.

5.8 Summary
You will have realised that the issue pertaining to special needs are complicated
and indeed controversial. The choices made ultimately impact on where and
how students with special needs are educated and who does the education.
Therefore, teachers need to consider whether the choices of which concepts
communication system and which language to use would in fact enhance or
hinder the all round growth of development of adolescent students.

In this unit, we focussed on learners with special needs and how they can be
provided for in their learning. We identified slow-learners, gifted children and
the physically handicapped. In each case, we defined the group, explained
the cause of the condition where possible, categorised the disability, outlined
the signs and symptoms of the disability and listed the various strategies and
considerations to be made by teachers to ensure effective learning does take
place. In Unit 6, we introduce you to the inductive approach in progressive
teaching.

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References
Chimedza, R. (2000). Disability and Special Needs in an African Context.
Harare College Press.
Hallahan, D.P. and Kauffman, J.M. (1994). Exceptional Learners. Virginia
Allyn Bacon. .
Hunt, N. and Marshal, K. (1994). Exceptional Children and Youth Boston
Houghton Mifflin Company.
Levine, K. (1986).The social context of literacy. London: Routledge and
Kegan Paul.
Macht, M. Quann (1993). Social work, An Introduction. Chartes E. Merrill
Publishing Co. Columbus, Ohio.
Marnelli, R.P. & Dell, Orto, A.E. (1984). The Psychological and Social
Impact of Physical Disability. New York Springer Publishing
Company.
Maher, C.A. and Benne, R.E. (1984). Planning and Evaluating Special
Education Services. Englewood.
Meadow, K.P. (1980). Deafness and Child Development. London Edward
Arnorld.
Meissele, S.J. and Shonkoff, J.P. (Eds) (1990). Handbook of Early
Intervention. Cambridge University Press.
Wallace, B. (1993). Teaching the Very Able Child. London Wirdlock
Education Ltd.
Zindi, F. (1997). Special Education in Africa. Botswana Tasalls Publishing.
Mogodisthane.

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Unit Six
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The Inductive Approach in

Progressive Teaching

6.0 Introduction

I n order to meet the needs of diverse learners in a classroom situation, it is

important to vary the approaches to teaching the subject matter. One such
basic approach to adopt is that of inductive teaching. In this unit, we introduce
you to the inductive approach so that you may be in a position to vary your
approaches in your instructional processes. We define the nature of the
approach, its strengths and weaknesses to enable you to make a decision on
whether or not to adopt the approach. However, it should be borne in mind
that the inductive approach to teaching has received acceptance from many
educationists the world over.
Progressive Teaching Methods BECS 202

6.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 define the concept “inductive approach”
 describe the nature of the inductive approach to progressive teaching
 explain clearly the Inductive Process
 state the role of the teacher in implementation of inductive approach
 explain the place of instructional media and technology
 discuss the organisation and implementation of experiments in inductive
teaching approaches

6.2 Definition of Terms

This section is devoted to bringing you into context through the definition of
the term inductive teaching.

Landmark College (2005) asserts that inductive teaching is a process of using

observations to develop general principles about a specific subject. A group
of similar specimens, events, or subjects are first observed and studied; findings
from the observations are then used to make broad statements about the
subjects that were examined. These statements may then become laws of
nature or theories.

An almost similar definition is offered by Prince and Felder (2006) who define
inductive teaching as an umbrella term that encompasses a range of instructional
methods, including inquiry learning, problem-based learning, project-based
learning, case-based teaching, discovery learning, and just-in-time teaching.

However, the most discernible feature of the later definition is that it is specific
on the examples of the approaches that make up inductive approach. These
different methods have many features in common, besides the fact that they
all qualify as inductive. They are all learner- centred, meaning that they impose
more responsibility on students for their own learning than the traditional lecture-
based deductive approach does.

One can therefore, deduce from the definitions that inductive teaching
approaches are based on the premise that knowledge is built primarily from a
learner’s experiences and interactions with phenomena and the teacher‘s role
is to guide.

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6.3 The Nature of Inductive Approach to Learning

The inductive approach represents a more modern style of teaching where,
for example, in an English lesson, the new grammatical structures or rules are
presented to the students in a real language context. The students learn the
use of the language structure through practice of the language in context and
not in isolation, and later realise the rules from the practical examples. For
example, if the structure to be presented is the comparative form, the teacher
would begin the lesson by drawing a figure on the board and saying, “This is
Jim. He is tall.” Then, the teacher would draw another taller figure next to the
first saying, “This is Bill. He is taller than Jim.” The teacher would then provide
many examples using students and items from the classroom, famous people,
or anything within the normal daily life of the students, to create an
understanding of the use of the structure. The students eventually practise the
structures meaningfully in groups or pairs. With this approach, the teacher’s
role is to provide meaningful contexts to encourage demonstration of the rule,
while the students evolve the rules from the examples of its use and continued
practice.

The advantages of the inductive approach are that students can focus on
content learnt without being held back by terminology and rules that can inhibit
fluency in understanding. The inductive approach also promotes increased
student participation and practice of the target content in the classroom, in
meaningful contexts. The use of the inductive approach has been noted for its
success in classrooms world-wide, but its disadvantage is that it is sometimes
difficult for students who expect a more traditional style of teaching to induce
the rules from context.

A significant amount of research indicates that the inductive method is highly

effective and appropriate for some types of learning goals and a less accurate
mode of thinking for others. Most research points to the idea that the inductive
method is an effective way to:

‹ Understand how logical conclusions are drawn

‹ Apply small, concrete ideas to larger, abstract concepts
‹ Transfer conclusions and governing principles to newly encountered
information
‹ Develop problem-solving skills
The inductive method is an extremely effective process for obtaining general,
observation-based information about the world. In fact, the inductive method,
whether guided in classrooms or occurring in non-academic settings, is one of
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the most common and natural forms of making logical assumptions about
what we observe. Inductive reasoning allows us to gather ideas about an
infinite number of events or phenomena in real life. Use of the inductive method
as a teaching tool to guide students through critical thinking, awareness,
evaluation of what they observe, and the drawing of logical conclusions and
explanations is almost universally accepted in science education.

6.4 Types of Inductive Teaching and Learning

Inductive teaching methods come in many forms and with many names. We
have already mentioned inquiry-based and discovery learning. Besides those,
there are problem-based learning, project-based learning, case-based learning
and just-in-time learning. We discuss these in detail below.

6.4.1 Inquiry-based learning

Inquiry is the simplest of the inductive approaches and might be the best one
for inexperienced or previously traditional instructors to begin with. It requires
designing instruction so that as much learning as possible takes place in the
context of answering questions and solving problems. As the students gain
more experience with this approach, the instructor may increase the scope
and difficulty of the focus questions, use more open-ended and poorly
structured problems and simultaneously decrease the amount of explicit
guidance provided.

Students are presented with a challenge which requires knowledge that has
not been completely covered. The challenge may come in a question that
needs a solution, an observation that needs to be explained, a data set that
must be analysed or a hypothesis that must be tested.

6.4.2 Discovery learning

Students are presented with a challenge and left to work out the solution on
their own (Bruner 1961, French 2006). Students learn to use trial and error
to analyse and resolve their findings. The teacher may provide limited feedback.
In these situations, this process is referred to as “Guided Discovery.”

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6.4.3 Problem-based learning (PBL)

As the name suggests, the students are presented with a real-world problem
that needs to be solved. Problem-based learning generally incorporates
collaborative learning by placing the students into teams. Collectively, they
formulate and evaluate their various solutions, select the best choice and present
their argument for that solution. In problem-based learning, students have not
previously received the necessary background instruction and emphasis is
not on a correct answer but on the investigative process.

Problem-based learning is the most complex and difficult to implement of the

methods reviewed in inductive approaches. It calls for a complex, open-ended,
authentic problem whose solution requires knowledge and skills specified in
the learning objectives. Such problems take time to create. PBL also requires
considerable teaching skill for instructors to deal with unfamiliar technical
questions and problems, student resistance and possibly hostility toward PBL,
and the array of interpersonal problems that frequently arise when students
work in teams. Full-fledged PBL is therefore, best undertaken by experienced
teachers with solid expertise in the subject matter of the course and a number
of years of experience with cooperative learning in a more conventional
classroom environment.

Despite the challenges, PBL in a natural environment is used to develop

students’ skills such as problem-solving, team work and self-directed or lifelong
learning, and it provides an excellent format to integrate material from across
the curriculum. Teachers wishing to focus specifically on these learning
outcomes should consider adopting PBL.

6.4.4 Project-based learning

Project-based learning is well suited to laboratory science courses that are
more than collections of ordinary experiments, and it may also be used in
other courses that deal with process or product design and development, for
example in the technical subjects area. Like the focus problems in problem-
based learning, projects should be authentic and should address the teacher’s
learning objectives; moreover, if students work in teams, the instructor should
observe the principles of cooperative learning including holding all team
members individually accountable for the entire project content and facilitating
their acquisition of teamwork skills. As teachers and students gain experience
with project-based learning, the projects may be made more open-ended
with less guidance being provided on how to complete them. In other words,
they may be increasingly structured as problem-based learning exercises.
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In project-based learning, students are presented with an assignment that

requires that they design or produce a deliverable or tangible result. The final
product may be a formal written or oral presentation of their processes and
outcomes. Project-based learning can be assigned to individuals or teams.
Unlike problem-based learning, this style of inductive learning provides the
student with the necessary background knowledge and is focused more on
the solution.

6.4.5 Case-base teaching/learning

Cases are effectively used when learning objectives include decision-making
in complex authentic situations. With appropriate selection, case-based
teaching can also provide an excellent environment in which to address specific
outcomes such as acquiring an understanding, responsibility, knowledge of
contemporary issues or the ability to understand technical solutions meant to
solve societal challenges. Scenarios suitable for cases might involve diagnosing
technical problems and formulating solution strategies, making business
management decisions taking into account technical, economic, and possibly
social and psychological considerations, and confronting ethical dilemmas.
Formulating good cases can be a difficult and time-consuming task and before
trying to do it, teachers should first check the libraries of cases in science to
see if an existing case addresses their learning objectives.

In case based teaching, students are presented with real-life scenarios, or

cases, in which they hypothetically assume various roles. The cases tend to
be very well structured filled with elaborate details to incorporate many of the
variables real-life problems contain. Students learn to apply material that has
already been covered in class and is somewhat familiar (Lohman, 2002).
Case-based learning can be assigned to individual students or to teams. Studies
have shown that case-based instruction significantly improves student retention,
reasoning and problem-solving skills (Fasko, 2003), and higher-order skills
on Bloom’s taxonomy (Gabel, 1999).

6.4.6 Just-in-time teaching (JiTT)

JiTT is a natural method to use when (1) it is important to the teacher that the
students keep up with readings and assignments on a day-by-day basis.
Teachers who plan to use the method should have solid expertise in the course
content and the flexibility needed to modify their approaches on short notice
after examining students’ responses to the preliminary exercises. Before
undertaking this task, teachers should see if materials can be obtained from
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colleagues at their school or elsewhere who have used JiTT for the same
subject.

In JiTT, students are presented with conceptual questions at the beginning of

class. These questions are usually done in such a manner that they can be
accessed immediately. The teacher then uses the findings of the results from
the questions to adjust the lesson and address misconceptions the students
may have about the subject content. This method is classified as inductive
because the students are being asked questions about material they have not
yet studied. This method is used primarily in higher education.

Activity 6.1
1. Discuss what you understand by inductive approach in teaching.
? 2.
3.
Outline the features of each of the 6 approaches to inductive learning.
Critically examine the advantages and disadvantages of each of the 6
approaches as applied to the teaching/learning process.

6.5 The Inductive Process

According to Kolb (1984), six steps are normally gone through in the inductive
approach. The steps observed in the inductive approach to teaching are as
follows:

Stating the question/Problem

This stage entails asking what information one wishes to obtain or what problem
one desires to solve after undertaking the process.

Making observations

The information gather in a gathering step entails soliciting for answers that
will help in solving the problem identified in the first stage of the process. The
process at this stage desires that one researches, making, and recording direct
observations of the subjects under investigation.

Form a hypothesis

After gathering an adequate amount of information, apply what you have

observed to form an educated guess or prediction of what the answer to your
question is. This is known as hypothesising.
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Test

After the formation of the hypothesis, it should be tested by performing an

experiment that includes all aspects of an experiment.

Analyse

Examine the results of your experiment to understand what they imply.

Draw a conclusion

Based on the interpretation of your results, develop a general principle as an

answer to your question.

Hereunder, we summarise the inductive process through Figure 6.1

Fig 6.1: The Inductive Process (Adapted from Kolb, 1984)

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6.6 The Role of the Teacher in Implementation of

Inductive Approach
The inductive approach, instead of basing on a teacher-fronted transmission-
style classroom, is student-centred and allows learners to become deeply
involved in the concepts they are studying and offers potential for reflection
(Prince and Felder, 2006). Being student centred, it should therefore mean
that the teacher acts to facilitate the learning process as most of the learning
has to be undertaken by the student. Once the teacher has put in place his/her
objective for the lesson, his/her roles shift to some of the following:

‹ grouping the students as desired, that is, whether by sex, mixed or

ability grouping
‹ monitoring and supervision of work, whether in groups or pairs
‹ provision of resources for the group tasks
‹ assisting in the group tasks where challenges are encountered, for
example through asking probing questions
‹ motivating the students to learn and aim at attaining the ultimate goal of
the lesson
‹ exposing students to a concrete instance of a concept
‹ encouraging students to observe patterns, raise questions, or make
generalisations from their observations
‹ creating the opportunities and the context in which students can
successfully make the appropriate generalisations
‹ guiding students as necessary

6.7 The Place of Instructional Media and Technology

Since inductive teaching/learning is all about children discovering concepts,
associations, rules and so on all by themselves, it calls upon the teacher to
make provisions for teaching /learning aids that are appropriate for the
endeavour. Such technology should give the pupils ample time to view and
use them and should be user friendly for the classroom situation. Because the
students need to use the media to better understand issues and concepts,
maximum effort should be made to ensure the media are helpful for the purpose
to which they are being put otherwise students become frustrated in the
process. The teaching/learning aids come in different forms, some of which
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are models, objects specimen, diagrams, puppets, mock-ups, jump-ups, picture

books and mobiles.

6.7.1 Realia
In the context of the classroom, realia can be defined as a real object. These
could be items such as stones, leaves, food products and clothes.

6.7.2 Models
These could be objects that duplicate as accurately as possible the real objects.
Sometimes they are smaller versions of the real objects. They may include the
telephone, globe and clock. Some models can be used to demonstrate the
interior structure of objects or systems with a clarity that is often not possible
with two-dimensional representations and at a cost that is not yet matched by
visual–reality products. They can be used to demonstrate movement – another
feature that it is often difficult to show adequately using two dimensional display
systems and that is more expensive in visual-reality experiences.

6.7.3 Audio aids

The audio aids mostly used in the classroom situation are the voice of the
teacher, radio and recordings such as tape recorder, cassette recorder and
gramophone. The audio aids provide the message through the ears. That way
the children will be able to learn. However, it has to be emphasised that audio
aids cannot be used alone, without involving the visual aids. For more detailed
information on instructional media, we refer you to Module BEDS206. This
section of the unit was meant to make you aware that not all media are
appropriate for inductive teaching and learning.

Activity 6.2
1. Bearing in mind that the student is at the centre of learning process,
? which types of media would be most appropriate to use in a lesson of
your choice?
2. Justify the reasons for your choice.

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6.8 Organisation and Implementation of Experiments

The inductive method is deeply entrenched in science education though it can
be easily adapted to suit other non-scientific areas. Traditionally, science
courses have been taught through the deductive approach. In this case, the
teacher teaches the students the facts and theory, then moves to textbook
exercises and finally application. Using the inductive method, the teacher
presents the students with a specific challenge or problem, such as an
experiment that needs to be interpreted, or a real-world problem that needs
to be solved. The students must then use their base-knowledge to investigate,
test, analyse and come to their own conclusion or solution. The inductive
method, which is commonly interpreted in schools as the scientific method is
widely used as a guide for observation and inquiry based learning. School
science exhibitions or fairs adhere to inductive methods as a guideline for
student investigation into science.

Once teachers are persuaded that inductive teaching methods are worth
attempting, they face the question of which method to use. The choice of
method to use will depend on a number of factors as the following:

‹ the teacher’s learning objectives

‹ the teacher’s and the students’ prior experience with learner-centred
teaching methods
‹ the teacher’s confidence in his or her content knowledge and teaching
skill
‹ the availability of local expertise and support for each of the various
methods

Before teaching a topic or series of lessons using any inductive method, the
teacher should write learning objectives that define what the student should
be able to do for example, explain, calculate, derive, design, model or critique
when the instructional process has been concluded. The objectives should
guide the choice of focus problems, learning activities, and assessment methods.
Once learning objectives have been defined, a suitable inductive instructional
method may be identified. In order to guide you further in the process of
inductive teaching, we present a typical example drawn from the science subject
on how you can use the inductive approach/process in science teaching.

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6.8.1Steps and organisation of inductive process as applied

in a science lesson
In this subsection, let us look at the steps in the learning process in an inductive
programme.

‹ State the question: What type of artificial light will cause plants to
grow the most: red, blue, green, or normal white light?
‹ Make observations: Plants observed growing under normal white
house lights often appear green, leafy, sturdy and healthy. However,
plants grown in indoor white light usually donot appear as large or as
healthy as plants that grow outdoors in natural sunlight. After reading
about natural sunlight, we find that the sun contains high amounts of red
light.
‹ Form a hypothesis: Based on our observations of plants already
growing under two different types of light, we predict that plants grown
under red light will grow the most, because red light is closest to natural
sunlight.
‹ Test: As a test, a few plants are grown from seed under entirely red,
blue, green, or white light. Plants are placed in the same amounts of
soil, receive the same amount of water, and grow in identical
environments. The only difference between the growth conditions of
the plants is the light.
‹ Analyse: The plants grown under red light were the largest, leafiest,
and sturdiest, followed by plants grown under white light, blue light,
and green light.
‹ Draw a conclusion: Based on the results from the tests and
observations, we can conclude that red light causes plants to undergo
the most growth.

6.8.2 Stages in inductive teaching

The best known teaching cycles in inductive teaching processes are associated
with Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning model which involves:

‹ introducing a problem and providing motivation for solving the problem

by relating it to students’ interests and experience. The focal question
at this stage is why?

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‹ presenting pertinent facts, experimental observations, principles and

theories, problem-solving methods and so on, and opportunities for
the students to reflect on them. At this stage the question is what?
‹ providing guided hands-on practice in the methods and types of thinking
the lessons are intended to teach. The how? question is asked at this
stage.
‹ allowing and encouraging exploration of consequences and applications
of the newly learned material. At this stage we ask what if?
According to Kolb (1984) learning cycle using the inductive approach may
consist of the following steps:

Step1: Students are presented with a problem, scenario, case, news event,
or common misconception presenting the targeted content in a realistic context)
that establishes a need to know the content and master the skills included in
the learning objectives for the module.

Step 2: The students then formulate their initial thoughts, reflecting on what
they already know and think about the context of the challenge and generating
ideas about how they might address the challenge.

Step 3: Perspectives and resources are provided next. Perspectives are

statements by experts that offer insights into various dimensions of the challenge
without providing a direct solution to it, and resources may include lectures,
reading materials, videos, simulations, homework problems, links to websites,
and other materials relevant to the challenge.

Step 4: Assessment activities are then carried out in which the students apply
what they know, and identify what they still need to learn to address the
challenge. The activities may include engaging in self-assessments and
discussions, completing homework assignments, writing essays or reports,
and taking on-line quizzes or examinations. Multiple interactions between Steps
3 and 4 would normally be required to fully meet the challenge.

Step 5: In the final wrap-up, an expert may present a model solution to the
challenge, or the students may present a report and/or complete an examination
showing that they have met the challenge and demonstrated their mastery of
the knowledge and skills specified in the learning objectives.

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Activity 6.3
1. Come up with a topic in your subject and following the steps of the
? 2.
inductive process, show how you will teach students in your class.
Discuss the likely benefits and challenges of using such an approach.

6.9 Assessment Techniques

You have already been introduced to assessment in earlier units and rightly
spelt out assessment techniques in everyday activities may not be appropriate
for reporting inductive learning activities. However, you are taken back to
Murdoch and Hornsby (2004) whose suggestions on assessment in the
Integrated Curriculum should be considered. To refresh your mind, these forms
of assessment take the form of ongoing records and may include, among
others, anecdotal records, annotated class lists, checklists, running record
sheets and teacher diaries and logs, proforma list of learning outcome which
category includes records of progress towards learning outcomes and checklist
of stages in achieving learning outcomes. Observations of students are also
used and these include informal observation, checklists and notes, watching
work in progress, systematic observation and presentations. Student records
may include student folios, student journals, work-in-progress, folders, learning
log-record and diaries. Lastly, there are student self-assessments which include
student-devised class and group projects, self-assessment formats, group
discussions and peer assessments.

Activity 6.4
1. Assess the suitability of the above stated methods of student assessment
? 2.
when using inductive approaches to teaching.
Discuss the strategies that can be adopted to minimise their
weaknesses.

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6.10 The Benefits of Implementing Inductive

Approach to Learning
Some of the benefits include the following:

‹ The learners are more engaged in the teaching-learning process with

the teacher facilitating the attainment of skills and the learners formulating
their own generalisations from the discoveries made.
‹ Learning becomes more interesting at the outset because the students
begin with what they know.
‹ Inductive learning helps the development of the learner’s higher-order-
thinking-skills. To see and analyse the same in order to arrive at
generalisations requires analytical thinking.
‹ Today’s fast paced students do not want to be lectured to. They want
to actively participate.

6.11 Possible Challenges in Implementing Inductive

Approach to Learning
Inductive approaches to learning may pose severe challenges for students
with different learning abilities. Students may have difficulty getting started,
understanding their role in the exercises, and staying focused on a given activity.
In order for these students to succeed when engaged in inductive activities, it
is essential that the teacher creates clear guidelines for behaviour, provide
explicit directions from the outset of the activity, and be prepared to offer
extra guidance as necessary. Mastropieri, Scruggs, and Butcher (1997) concur
and suggest that inductive-based activities for students without the above
supporting structures will result in less effective concept development.

However, the main criticism of the inductive method is that it is not a valid
means of obtaining proof. Because inductive reasoning encompasses broad
statements based on smaller observations, the method can never completely
prove that what is observed from a small set of data applies to the whole
group. For example, based on observation of mice, the inductive method can
help us generalise that because the observed mice ate peanut butter that every
mouse, everywhere must eat peanut butter. The inductive method cannot
provide absolute proof of this assumption. Generalisations and principles
arrived at by means of the inductive method may certainly be tested. However,
because conclusions drawn from inductive reasoning are based on observable
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data, if the data changes the conclusions may also change as a result. We
summarise some of the basic challenges of the approach but much has been
presented above.

Some of the challenges include the following:

‹ Inductive learning requires more time and so less subject matter will be
covered. It needs much time to lead students to the formulation of
generalisations.
‹ It also demands expert facilitating skills on the part of the teacher. He/
she needs to ask the right questions and organise answers and anticipate
a diversity of student discoveries.

Activity 6.5
1. Critically examine the major benefits of inductive teaching/learning.
? 2.
3.
Discuss the major challenges experienced in inductive teaching/learning.
How applicable are the inductive approaches to teaching/learning of
your subject area in a classroom situation?

6.12 Summary
While opinions on the use of inductive methods in the classroom vary, the
collective evidence in favour of the approach over traditional deductive
pedagogy is conclusive. Because the inductive methods promote students’
adoption of a deep approach to learning, as opposed to a surface or
memorisation-intensive approach, they are a worthy option. In this unit we
have exposed you to this all but effective type of approach that enhances
learning in the students despite its having its own weaknesses. In this unit, we
discussed different types of inductive methods which include among others,
inquiry-based learning, discovery learning, Problem-based learning, Case-
base learning and Just-in-Time (JiTT). Unit 7 dwells on issues to do with
cooperative and collaborative learning.

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References
Bay, M., Staver, J. R., Bryan, T. and Hale, J. B. (1990). Science Instruction
for the Mildly Handicapped: Direct instruction versus discovery teaching.
Journal of Research in Science Teaching 29 (6): 555-70.
Bruner, J. S. (1961). “The act of discovery”. Harvard Educational Review
31 (1): 21–32.
Brigham, F., and Matins, J.J. (1999). A synthesis of Empirically supported
Best practices for Science students with Learning Disabilities. 1999
Annual International Conference of the Association for the Education
of Teachers in Science, Austin, TX.
Fasko, D. (2003). Case Studies and Methods in Teaching and Learning
Paper presented at Society of Educators and Scholars, Louisville, KY.
Felder, R. (1993). Reaching the second tier: Learning and teaching styles in
college science education. Journal of College Science Teaching 23
(5): 286-90.
Gabel, C. (1999). Using Case Studies to Teach Science, National
Association for Research in Science Teaching, Boston.
Holland, J. H; Holyoak, K. J; Nisbett, R. E; Thagard, P. R. (1989). Induction:
Processes of Inference, Learning, and Discovery. Cambridge, MA,
USA: MIT Press.
Holyoak, K. and Morrison, R. (2005). The Cambridge Handbook of
Thinking and Reasoning. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Klauer, K. J and Gary, D. P. (1994). Cognitive Training for Children: A
Developmental Program of Inductive Reasoning and Problem
Solving. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Hogrefe & Huber Publishers.
Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of
Learning and Development, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-
Hall.
Mastropieri, M. A., Scruggs, T. E. and Butcher, K. (1997). How effective is
inquiry learning for students with mild disabilities? Journal of Special
Education 29 (2): 199-211.
Mayer, R. E. (1998). Learning and Instruction. Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.
Prince, M. J. and Felder, R. M. (2006). Inductive Teaching and learning
Methods: Definitions, Comparisons and Research Bases, Journal of
Engineering Education, 95(2), 123-138.

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Unit Seven
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Cooperative and Collaborative

Learning

7.0 Introduction

I n Unit 6 we introduced you to inductive approaches in progressive

education. Their strengths and weaknesses were discussed. This unit is on
Cooperative and Collaborative Learning. In this unit, we focus specifically on
how this technique for using small, cooperative groups in education can help
improve learning in your class. As you will see this is a highly interactive teaching
strategy which can be very effective if correctly used in your lessons.
Progressive Teaching Methods BECS 202

7.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 explain collaborative and cooperative learning
 describe the benefits of collaborative and cooperative learning
 evaluate the use cooperative learning in the teaching and learning process
 analyse the criticisms of cooperative learning
 discuss challenges faced in cooperative learning
 assess the use of educational technology in cooperative learning

7.2 What are Cooperative and Collaborative

Learning?
According to Johnson and Johnson (2004), collaborative learning is a
method of teaching and learning in which students team up together to explore
a significant question or create a meaningful project. A group of students
discussing a lecture or students from different schools working together over
the Internet on a shared assignment are both examples of collaborative learning.

Cooperative learning, which is the primary focus of this unit, is a specific kind
of collaborative learning. In cooperative learning, students work together in
small groups on a structured activity. They are individually accountable for
their work, and the work of the group as a whole is also assessed (Slavin,
1995). Cooperative groups work face-to-face and learn to work as a team.

In small groups, students can share strengths and also develop their weaker
skills. They develop their interpersonal skills. They learn to deal with conflict.
When cooperative groups are guided by clear objectives, students engage in
numerous activities that improve their understanding of subjects explored.

In order to create an environment in which cooperative learning can take

place, three things are necessary. First, students need to feel safe, but also
challenged. Second, groups need to be small enough that everyone can
contribute. Third, the task students work together on must be clearly
understood (Apple, Duncan-Hewitt, Krumsieg and Mount, 2000). The
cooperative and collaborative learning techniques presented here should help
make this possible for teachers.

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Also, in cooperative learning small groups provide a place where:

‹ learners actively participate;
‹ teachers become learners at times, and learners sometimes teach;
‹ respect is given to every member;
‹ projects and questions interest and challenge students;
‹ diversity is celebrated, and all contributions are valued;
‹ students learn skills for resolving conflicts when they arise;
‹ members draw upon their past experience and knowledge;
‹ goals are clearly identified and used as a guide;
‹ research tools such as Internet access are made available;
‹ students invest in their own learning.

Activity 7.1
1. Briefly describe what you understand by the term cooperative and
? 2.
collaborative learning.
Discuss the key characteristics of cooperative learning.

7.3 The Difference between Collaborative and

Cooperative Learning
The terms collaborative learning and cooperative learning sometimes are used
interchangeably. This is reasonable, as both favor small-group active student
participation over passive, lecture-based teaching and each require a specific
task to be completed. Each strategy inherently supports a discovery based
approach to learning. The two methods assign various group roles though
collaborative learning can have fewer roles assigned. In both situations, student
members are required to possess group skills though cooperative learning
may include this as a instructional goal. Each plan comes with a framework
upon which the group’s activity resides, but cooperative learning is usually
more structurally defined than collaborative learning (Bruffe, 1999; MacGregor,
2008).

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Activity 7.2
1. Compare and contrast collaborative and cooperative learning.
? 2. Show how the two can complement each other in the teaching/learning
process.

7.4 The Development of Cooperative and

Collaborative Learning
According to Johnson, Johnson and Holububec (2008), over the past twenty-
five years, the use of small-group learning has greatly increased. Informal
collaborative projects have grown into structured, cooperative group work.
Cooperative learning became especially popular in the early 1980s and has
matured and evolved since.

One evolving aspect of cooperative and collaborative learning involves how

the educational community approaches the composition of the small groups.
Debates still occur on this topic. Researchers disagree mainly about whether
to group students according to their ability, or to mix them so that stronger
students can help the weaker ones learn and themselves learn from the
experience of tutoring.

Some researchers, such as King and Kitchener (1994), suggest that gifted
students are held back when grouped with weaker students. More researchers
support diversity in small groups, however. Slavin (1995) conclude that
grouping by ability does not usually benefit overall achievement and can lead
to inequalities of achievement. With good arguments on both sides, most
teachers make choices based on their objectives. Or, they simply alternate.
Sometimes they group according to the strengths or interests of students, and
other times they mix it up so that students can learn to work with different
types of people.

Just as experts differ on the make-up of groups, they also debate about the
most effective size for small groups. According to Slavin (1995), having two
or three members per group produces higher achievement than groups with
four or more members. Johnson et al. (2008) conclude that most teachers
prefer pairs and small groups of three and four. Johnson et al (1997) suggest
that we have dialogues with students about their preferences for group
composition and expected outcomes.

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Activity 7.3
1. Justify the size of a cooperative learning group that you would use in
? teaching a specific topic.

As we work through some examples of cooperative learning, you will learn

how to devise groups that work best for particular assignments.

Most recently, new technologies have added an exciting new dimension to

collaborative and cooperative learning. With the Internet, collaboration can
occur without regard to distance or time barriers: e-mails can be sent at students’
or teachers’ convenience to practically anywhere around the world, and the
recipient can reply when he or she has time. Students can work together to
create Web pages or find and share data gleaned from the internet. There is
software that can be used with school computer networks to allow students
in different classrooms to work together simultaneously or a group of students
to collaborate on certain projects.

For more on using technology with cooperative and collaborative learning,

see the topic “Use of technology in cooperative and collaborative learning” in
this Unit.

7.5 Key Principles When Using Cooperative

Learning
As we have seen in some sections of this unit, David and Johnson (2007) are
of the view that cooperative groups work best when:
‹ Each student is involved. In groups where students are dominated by
one leader, where a shy student hesitates to join in and contribute, or
where you are just trying cooperative groups for the first time, you may
wish to assign specific roles. One person might be the “organiser.” That
person tells the students what step should come first, second, third,
and so on. Another would be the “reporter,” who writes down the
directions and reports back to the group about their progress and goals.
A third person is the “questioner,” who generates questions to ask along
the way in order to involve every member. A fourth member could be
the “assessor,” who uses a set rubric or guide to evaluate the progress
of each meeting. The roles are clearly defined in advance, so that each

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person is accountable, and everyone in the group plays an important

part.
‹ Students sit facing one another. When students face their co-workers,
they are more likely to interact well with others. Seating arrangements
really do make a difference, and sometimes students need to be
reminded that they should move chairs closer together or place them in
a circle. You can set up the room with seats in clusters to facilitate this
process.
‹ Students assume personal responsibility. Invite students to report back
to their group or to another group after each session. Give clear
guidelines on paper for each person’s role and go over them, so that
students understand the criteria for his or her role. Change roles regularly,
so that students can learn to assume responsibility in a variety of areas.
‹ Students relate well to others. Some students are better than others at
interpersonal exchanges. You may wish to provide those who are weaker
in relating to others with practice opportunities to engage in social
contacts. This can be as simple as teaching others a favorite subject or
joining a teammate for a special class duty.
‹ Members reflect in order to improve group effectiveness. Students can
be given a list of questions to consider, such as the conflict-resolution
inventory presented in an earlier section. They will improve their
performances as they learn to reflect on past performances and create
new goals based on those reflections.

7.6 How to Get Started When Using Cooperative and

Collaborative Groups
According to Johnson and Johnson (2004) there is a step-by-step guide to
using cooperative and collaborative groups in your classroom. It starts with
the development of a good question and then moves through a cycle that
allows the teacher and students to get better at working collaboratively over
time.

7.6.1 Form a question

Excellent questions, as good teachers from the time of Socrates have known,
form the bedrock for motivating small groups. A good question motivates
students to ask, wonder, and discover in order to know. A quick checklist for
small-group questions can help you get started. Good group questions should:
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‹ Work from the known to the unknown. When teams connect new ideas
to their past knowledge and experiences, they draw from personal
understanding for a deeper response.
‹ Allow for distinctive roles for each student. For example, one student
may record, another ensures that all students participate, another
organizes Internet searches, another gathers creative responses from
all participants.
‹ Encourage additional queries. We teach students to ask each other
follow-up questions about each topic in order to tap into deeper
responses. Students can learn to probe each other through sets of
questions they compile. Ask them to hand in lists of questions they
create and add your own queries to their lists.
‹ Vary the techniques used for moving toward answers. These might
include humour, group competition, or mock interviews to respond to
real world problems.
‹ Allow students to create visuals such as charts, boards, overheads,
and diagrams that students can use for presenting their ideas.
‹ Avoid jargon. The questions that motivate small-group inquiry will
adequately cover content, address real-life problems, and range from
lower-level facts and comprehension to higher-level application and
critical thinking.

7.6.2 Identify goals

The second phase for successful group formation relates to creating goals for
each group assignment. Foggy goals mean wasted time and poor motivation
to learn.

Goals, or objectives, are performance-based and usually begin, “Learners

will” (LW) or “Students will be able to”. Group objectives, clearly stated,
motivate students and offer precise directions on the lesson content, so you
will want to substitute vague words such as “know,” “understand,” “appreciate,”
or “realise” for performance words such as “list,” “demonstrate,” “describe,”
or “compare.” Effective group objectives might include:

‹ LW list on a poster three foods that bears typically enjoy

‹ LW demonstrate the bisection of a given angle
‹ LW describe different methods of preserving food
‹ LW compare cooperative learning and individual learning

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You might identify one or two significant objectives for any group task. Time
spent in identifying clear objectives is often time saved from re-teaching content
that could have been handled in group interactions.

7.6.3 Create rubrics

Rubrics provide another tool to guide students’ expression of knowledge as
they solve problems. They also help students and teachers to assess the group
work accurately.

A group rubric that guides students’ investigations about any topic might simply
begin by listing areas of strength expected, such as:

‹ identifies relevant and meaningful problems

‹ creates effective responses or possibilities
‹ applies specific solutions from the text or Internet
‹ contributes data from interviews
‹ displays personal strengths and interests
‹ suggests future considerations about the problem
‹ illustrates communication about the problem
Armed with a probing question, clear objectives, and specific rubrics, you
can then assign diverse tasks that enable students to express their unique
methods of solving a real world problem. You may want to do this by challenging
more of their brains’ capacity to respond through multiple intelligence
applications.

7.6.4 Assign a specific assessment task

The fourth phase of group work is the assignment of performances that:
‹ Match related learning approaches. So, if group members
conducted an interview, they might be expected to provide a transcript
of dialogue, compare two different perspectives, and so on. You would
not expect multiple-choice tests to accurately assess knowledge obtained
in original interviews, for instance.

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‹ Cover content. The task should illustrate students’ active engagement

with the text and other learning materials used.
‹ Enable students to develop their interests and abilities. Students
might complete interest inventories to discover their interests and then
check to determine how they used their unique interests and abilities to
explore questions.
‹ Involve authentic events. Authentic tasks are those relevant to your
students’ lives and usually represent solutions to real-life problems.
‹ Create meaningful challenges for students. Students often use their
stronger abilities or intelligences to develop weaker areas. Cooperative
and collaborative groups can use multiple approaches to solve any
problem so that students broker their gifts and abilities to explore topics
at a deeper level.

7.6.5 Reflect to adjust

Finally, the fifth phase of cooperative-group design ensures that teachers and
students regularly reflect on group progress and make adjustments to improve
outcomes. They look back over the small-group session through a series of
simple questions.

In this phase, you ensure the regular adjustments that build more successful
groups for each new task assigned. Following any group assignment, for
instance, you and students might reflect on questions about content:

‹ What main goal did the group cover today?

‹ What facts did each member contribute? How?
‹ What did the group not learn about the topic? Why?
‹ What would the group do differently to achieve more?
‹ What content did members find interesting?
‹ Did members possess enough background knowledge?
‹ What will future group goals be to ensure completion of its goals?
Reflection questions about process might include:
‹ How much time did each member spend talking?
‹ Who talked most? Why?
‹ Did members question each other and wait for responses?
‹ How do members motivate each one to participate?
‹ Did motivation efforts work? Why or why not?
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During a collaborative project, students might also reflect on their attitude,

work habits, and areas of need. Reflective questions about attitude include:

‹ What was I particularly good at during group work?

‹ How did I improve over the time we worked together?
‹ What do I still need to work on?
Reflective questions about work habits include:
‹ How would I describe my work and cooperation?
‹ Did I contribute regularly as we worked together?
‹ What learning goals did I set and which ones did I achieve during this
time together?
Reflective questions about areas of need include:
‹ What areas still need development most?
‹ What areas do I need help to improve?
‹ What advice would (or did) other group members give me?

Activity 7.4
1. Outline the main steps in using cooperative and collaborative learning.
? 2. How applicable are these steps to the classroom situation?

7.7 The Difference between Cooperative and

Collaborative Learning and the Traditional
Teaching Approaches
Cooperative and collaborative learning differ from traditional teaching
approaches because students work together rather than compete with each
other individually (Slavin, 1995 and Bruffe, 1999).

Collaborative learning can take place any time, students work together — for
example, when they help each other with homework. Cooperative learning
takes place when students work together in the same place on a structured
project in a small group. Mixed-skill groups can be especially helpful to students
in developing their social abilities (Johnson and Johnson, 2004).

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The skills needed to work together in groups are quite distinct from those
used to succeed in writing a paper on one’s own or completing most homework
or “seatwork” assignments. In a world where being a “team player” is often a
key part of business success. Cooperative learning is a very useful and relevant
tool.

Because it is just one of a set of tools, however, it can easily be integrated into
a class that uses multiple approaches. For some assignments, individual work
may be most efficient, while for others cooperative groups work best.

Research suggests that cooperative and collaborative learning bring positive

results such as deeper understanding of content, increased overall achievement
in grades, improved self-esteem, and higher motivation to remain on task.
Cooperative learning helps students become actively and constructively
involved in content, to take ownership of their own learning, and to resolve
group conflicts and improve teamwork skills (Apple et al, 2000).

Activity 7.5
1. Discuss the advantages of cooperative learning over the traditional
? mode.

7.8 The Benefits of Cooperative and Collaborative

Learning
Benefits from small-group learning in a collaborative environment include
celebration of diversity, acknowledgment of individual differences, interpersonal
development, actively involving students in learning and more opportunities
for personal feedback.

7.8.1 Celebration of diversity

Students learn to work with all types of people. During small-group
interactions, they find many opportunities to reflect upon and reply to the
diverse responses fellow learners bring to the questions raised. Small groups
also allow students to add their perspectives to an issue based on their cultural
differences. This exchange inevitably helps students to better understand other
cultures and points of view.

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7.8.2 Acknowledgment of individual differences

When questions are raised, different students will have a variety of responses.
Each of these can help the group create a product that reflects a wide range
of perspectives and is thus more complete and comprehensive.

7.8.3 Interpersonal development

Students learn to relate to their peers and other learners as they work together
in group enterprises. This can be especially helpful for students who have
difficulty with social skills. They can benefit from structured interactions with
others.

7.8.4 Actively involving students in learning

Each member has opportunities to contribute in small groups. Students are
apt to take more ownership of their material and to think critically about related
issues when they work as a team.

7.8.5 More opportunities for personal feedback

Because there are more exchanges among students in small groups, your
students receive more personal feedback about their ideas and responses.
This feedback is often not possible in large-group instruction, in which one or
two students exchange ideas and the rest of the class listens.

Beneficial, cooperative-learning situations are not easy to set up. In many

situations, particularly those in which people must work together on a problem,
conflicts prevent learning. As a result, cooperative learning requires teaching
students to work well with others by resolving these inevitable conflicts. In
one of the sections of this unit, we present specific techniques for dealing with
group conflicts.

7.9 Effective Small Group Formations Used for

Different Learning Objectives
When teaching using cooperative learning, take a backward glance at any
lesson before you decide which group formations might work best to achieve
your learning goals. Some of the common group types are listed below. You
might begin by considering the following questions:
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‹ Which group formation would enable each student to get actively

involved in this lesson?
‹ How does the group formation selected help students develop their
weaker areas as well as use their stronger skills and intelligences?
‹ Should students have any say in their group formations for this lesson?
‹ Will the group formations chosen accomplish our lesson objectives? If
not, how can we redesign groups to meet these goals?
‹ How can students reflect and keep records of their progress and their
peer’s contributions for improved group participation?
You may also wish to take a look at your classroom furniture arrangement to
make the most of grouping spaces in your class. Most teachers prefer to
create grouping arrangements that do not limit their space. Groups should be
located so that you can move around and easily interact with each cluster.
Once the space has been determined you are ready to choose a group form
that best fits your needs.

The following are some possible group configurations: pair share, jigsaw, split
class, random groups, diverse groups and multi-aged groups.

7.10.1 Pair-share
The group formation defined: Pair-share is the simplest group to arrange.
It draws together two students to solve one problem, share ideas or explore
a question. Often, this group is useful when large-group instruction includes
parts that require discussion, explanation, or reflection. Pairs come together
for a brief time, and each person finds an opportunity to speak, listen, and get
feedback on the ideas raised.

Suggested tasks for this group: Use pair-sharing for: peer editing, sharing
personal experiences, discussing complex issues raised by materials and media.
Share responses to a field trip or museum. Share stories from experiences
related to the lesson topic.

Benefits of this formation: Students have more active engagement time

when there are fewer people in a group. For students with fewer interpersonal
skills, two is a comfortable setting to share without the threats they may perceive
in larger groups.

Possible drawbacks: With two members only, students receive fewer

perspectives and less diverse insights on complex topics. Chances of
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developing better solutions increase in groups with a few more members.

7.10.2 Jigsaw (sometimes called novice/expert), for research

and peer teaching.
The group formation defined: In jigsaw groups, students research and discuss
as part of one group, sometimes called a novice group and then teach after
which the group is now called the expert group.

Suggested tasks for this group: This group formation works best when
you have four or five parts of one topic to research. For example, you may
have four questions that relate to Arctic ravens — for instance, physical
characteristics, habits, mating rituals, and symbolism. Each group researches
five significant facts about their questions in the novice group and then teaches
the other groups while taking notes on additional questions.

Benefits of this formation: By giving students both responsibility to teach

and learn you are giving them opportunity to develop both research and
teaching skills. Students gain wonderful review sheets for examinations when
this task is set up well.

Possible drawbacks: Some students feel time constraints in this task and
appear unable to teach the expert group after research time is up. In these
cases, students need additional time to research and discuss the issues.

7.10.3 Split-class discussion (to debate a major issue)

The group formation defined: Class split in two. Discussion or debate
topics must be clearly selected to engage students. This group formation works
best when everyone is involved.

Suggested tasks for this group: Face desks in four rows - two facing the
other two. Use netball or soft object to throw back and forth — the speaker
holds the ball — to ensure that each side gets equal discussion opportunities.
Ask students to catch the ball once each until all members have spoken, in
order to give everybody a chance to participate.

Benefits of this formation: The entire class can hear diverse views on
meaningful topics. Students often change their opinions or develop a deeper
understanding of a variety of perspectives based on the diverse ideas and
insights of others.

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Possible drawbacks: Students each speak less since the group takes more
time to get around to everybody. Some students find it difficult to speak in
front of larger groups and enjoy a smaller circle more. These students learn
better and with less stress when they share in smaller groups.

7.10.4 Random groups of three

The group formation defined: Discussion topics in random groups of three
members; topics must be broad enough to capture the entire group’s interest
and focused enough to elicit a significant response.

Suggested tasks for this group: Predict what will happen in a story or
play. Respond to a crisis situation and create a group response to resolve the
problem.

Benefits of this formation: Students receive feedback from a variety of

perspectives. Group members serve as models for one another and hold one
another accountable. Three is a good number for extra speaking opportunities,
but it is not so big as to risk ignoring some members.

Possible drawbacks: It is easier to leave out students who are shy or quiet
in this formation. Occasionally two team up and one feels ostracised.

7.10.5 Ability groups, interest groups, or friendship groups

The group formation: Ability groups bring together students with similar
grades, backgrounds, interests, or abilities. A variation of ability grouping is
stratified grouping, in which you bring together students from high, middle,
and low achievement groups.

Suggested tasks for this group: The tasks include creating plays or skits,
building and constructing projects outside of class in which students must visit
one another’s homes and work together. Students who know one another or
live close to each other can meet more easily than those who live long distances
from each other.

Benefits of this formation: Students can work at the pace and level that
most fits their abilities in the subject. They find special interest in talking with
people who engage at their level about lesson topics. Students are rarely
bored when they can move along at a comfortable pace. Peers who know
one another or who work at similar levels often motivate one another and
enjoy each other’s insights.
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Possible drawbacks: It is unrealistic to find students who are homogeneous

in all areas. Students who are slower get labelled by students in faster or
stronger groups. Weaker students cannot develop in homogeneous groups
since they cannot rely on accurate peer coaching. Unpopular children may
feel excluded if they do not fit into any friendship group.

7.10.6 Diversity groups with mixed interests, abilities, and

backgrounds
The group formation defined: Groups with representatives from different
backgrounds, cultures, and genders. Generally in these groups, you find a
wide range of interests, abilities, and experiences.

Suggested tasks for this group: Generally, the diverse group most benefits
from exploring geographic sites, historic events, diverse lifestyles, and
worldview differences. Before the reading of a New Year’s story in class,
students might be invited to write “Happy New Year” in their language on the
board — or to create a greeting appropriate to the New Year celebration.
Diverse groups provide unique opportunities to value many languages and
bring together different customs from a variety of backgrounds to respond to
one issue.

Benefits of this formation: Students have repeated opportunities to

experience an issue from other perspectives. When well-guided, diversity
groups can help students understand one another and celebrate other cultures
and lands.

Possible drawbacks: Without clear guidance, or with preconceived notions

about a person’s background, minority students can feel alienated in diverse
groups. It is particularly important for these groups to receive careful guidelines
about strategies for respecting one another and listening to each other.

Activity 7.6
1. Research on the pros and cons of mixed-ability versus ability
? groups.

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7.10.7 Multi-aged groups

The group formation defined: A group of students from different grade and
age levels who work together for a combined task that benefits each member.

Suggested tasks for this group: Teens might come together with an
elementary class to teach mathematics concepts or help with science
experiments. A task that works especially well with this formation is interviews
conducted by teens to create a special-interest book for elementary-grade
students. Students can also be grouped with older “reading buddies” who
help them with reading skills. Mixed ages and abilities work best when the
goals are clearly defined and each member understands his or her role in the
project.

Benefits of this formation: Teens are less likely to feel pressure to compete
against peers when mixed with younger students. Elementary children feel
important when singled out and engaged by an older student for a task they
both find meaningful.

Possible drawbacks: Sometimes teens can be a negative influence on younger

children; at-risk youngsters with behavioural problems can be difficult for
teens to relate to. However, often children with behaviour problems, “at-risk”
kids, are amongst the sweetest and most thoughtful students. In difficult cases,
an adult may be required to monitor behavior and ensure success for both
ages.

7.10.8 Peer-led conferences

The group formation defined: Students prepare and then lead a roundtable
discussion of the material with parents, teachers, and other students.

Suggested tasks for this group: A major project, set up in your classroom,
in which students prepare stations for each of several intelligences. Then parents
and other community members are invited to interact with students and to ask
questions about the work. International food might be served for a history
topic; music might be played in the background, and so on. Students prepare
the environment for their conference and take the lead in engaging others in
their work. They might then prepare an interactive newsletter in which they
write notes to the adults about the experience and type up notes from community
participants.

Benefits of this formation: This group structure gives students an opportunity

to teach that is very authentic. They benefit from questions asked by real-life
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participants and from engaging others in their projects. Students also learn
self-confidence and gain the ability to respect others’ ideas from this group
formation.

Possible drawbacks: If parents attend and one student is left without guests,
he or she can feel alienated in this activity. It is important to ensure that adults
move throughout the room so that all students are included in the interactions.
Teachers might also ask students individually ahead of time who has guests
coming and who doesn’t. That way, they can help to move additional guests
to students without family.

Through cooperative sharing of our experiences with small groups used in our
classes, we can learn helpful hints and tips from one another.

7.11 Use of Technology in Cooperative and

Collaborative Learning
Technology, especially the Internet, has opened up vast new opportunities for
cooperative and collaborative learning. With the internet, students can
correspond and collaborate, with “keypals” (e-mail penpals) around the world.
E-mail can also be used to facilitate collaboration with students in other classes
in your school or district or anywhere in the world, for that matter.

There are organised collaborative projects called WebQuests on the Web.

These allow students from many locations to work together while learning
about a particular subject and searching for information.

The Net can also allow students to communicate with experts in different
subject areas — there are many “ask the expert” Web sites devoted specifically
to answering student questions. Or, students could correspond by e-mail with
experts from universities or industries as part of a particular project.

Students in schools with limited computer resources can still use collaborative
and cooperative learning techniques while working on Internet projects. In
fact, cooperative learning may be your best choice if you have a limited number
of computers for your classes and wish to use the internet for projects. The
skills learned in cooperative learning groups can help ease problems when the
number of students in the class exceeds the technological resources available
(David and Johnson, 2007). The small group approach works well in these
circumstances. For instance, one small group or team member might work on
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the computer and share the results of Internet research with other team
members who are doing library research or tutoring.

Cooperative learning can also be useful if you do have enough computers;

some students may be less proficient at working online than others, and the
questions raised by the some of the complicated material on the internet may
be best confronted in small groups. The variety of perspectives encountered
in online material can also be better interpreted when students learn together.
Almost any educational technology can be used in cooperative learning.

Activity 7.7
1. Discuss the formation tasks and benefits of multi-aged groups and peer-
? 2.
led conferences.
Discuss how you would find another school or class with which to
collaborate via the internet.

7.12 Criticisms of Cooperative and Collaborative

Learning
Critics of small-group learning often point to problems related to vague
objectives and poor expectations for accountability. Small-group work, some
claim, is an avoidance of teaching. According to these critics, dividing the
class into small groups allows the teacher to escape responsibility.

Slavin (1995), who has taught elementary, high-school, and college-level

students, cautions against abuse and overuse of group work. According to
Slavin, the many benefits of cooperative learning sometimes blind us to its
drawbacks. She identifies the following practices as common weaknesses:

‹ Making members of the group responsible for each other’s learning.

This can place too great a burden on some students. In mixed-ability
groups, the result is that often stronger students are left to teach weaker
students and do most of the work.
‹ Encouraging only lower-level thinking and ignoring the strategies
necessary for the inclusion of critical or higher-level thought. In small
groups, there is sometimes only enough time to focus on the task at its
most basic level.

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Some critics cite the mix of students as a source of potential difficulties,

although they disagree on which types of groups are problematic. Other
dissenters highlight the overuse of cooperative groups to the detriment of
students who benefit more from learning alone. Yet others recommend that
we negotiate more with students to determine how they learn best and apply
these ideas to the way we structure classes.

Recommendations from advocates of cooperative learning to address issues

that critics raise include:

‹ making sure to identify clear questions at the outset and to show how
these questions relate to students’ interests and abilities and the teaching
goals;
‹ resolving small-group conflicts as soon as they arise and showing
students how to prevent trouble in future;
‹ creating rubrics at the beginning of any assignment and using these for
guiding the learning process and for assessing final work;
‹ helping students reflect on their progress on a regular basis;
‹ expecting excellence from all students and letting them know that you
believe in them and their ability to produce excellent work.
Another possible problem with cooperative learning involves racial and gender
inequities. Bruffe (1999) shows that in science, and perhaps in other areas of
the curriculum as well, group learning may be less equitable for girls than
autonomous learning. Group learning may reinforce stereotypes, biases, and
views of science and mathematics as a male domain. Male students may
discredit females, and the classroom may become a microcosm of the “old
boy” network that has frequently discouraged women and minorities from
participating in certain curricular activities.

Group formations that avoid diversity — e.g., all female or all racial-minorities
— may be useful in these situations, but these groups also have drawbacks of
their own.

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Activity 7.10
1. Evaluate the applicability of using cooperative and collaborative learning
? 2.
in teaching one secondary school subject.
Critically examine the recommendations from advocates of cooperative
learning to counter issues that critics raise against cooperative learning.

7.13 Summary
In this unit, we focussed on cooperative and collaborative learning. We indicated
that collaborative learning is a method of teaching and learning in which students
team together to explore a significant question or create a meaningful project
and that cooperative learning is a specific kind of collaborative learning. In
cooperative learning, students work together in small groups on a structured
activity. We discussed a number of group formations which can be considered
in cooperative learning. They are individually accountable for their work, and
the work of the group as a whole is also assessed. We also said that research
has shown that cooperative learning has more benefits than the traditional
teaching approaches. New technology can also be used in cooperative
learning. Individual learning styles are not fully catered for in cooperative
learning. We also exposed you to the benefits and weaknesses of the
cooperative approaches to learning. However, we saw that cooperative
learning has more advantages than the traditional mode.

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References
Apple, D. K., Duncan-Hewitt, W., Krumsieg, K., & Mount, D. (2000).
Handbook on cooperative learning. Lisle, IL: Pacific Crest.
Bruffee, K. A. (1999). Collaborative learning: Higher education,
interdependence, and the authority of knowledge. Baltimore, MD:
Johns Hopkins University Press.
David and Roger Johnson. “Cooperative Learning.” Retrieved on 25 August
2011 from .[Link]
King, P. M., & Kitchener, K. S. (1994). Developing reflective judgment:
Understanding and promoting intellectual growth and critical
thinking in adolescents and adults. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., and Holubec, E. J. (2008). Circles of
learning: Cooperation in the classroom. Edina, MN: Interaction.
Johnson, D. W., and Johnson, R. T. (2004). The nuts and bolts of cooperative
learning. Edina, MN: Interaction.
MacGregor, J. (2008). Collaborative learning: Shared inquiry as a process
of reform. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 42. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Slavin, R. E. (1995). Cooperative learning: Theory, Research, and Practice.
Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

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Unit Eight
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Reflective Teaching

8.0 Introduction

D ue to the challenges facing teachers, the Reflective Teaching Model

(RTM), an inquiry approach, was introduced in an alternative
preparation programme of an urban university in the south eastern United
States. Reflective teaching has its roots in the work of a number of educational
theorists and practitioners, prominent of which is John Dewey. Leitch and
Day (2000) clarified Dewey’s considerations by explaining that being an
effective reflective practitioner is more than just improving practice and
developing additional competence. It is against this background that in this
unit we expose you to the concept and process of reflective teaching. As a
reflective practitioner, you should possess a set of attitudes towards teaching
practice based upon broader understandings of reflective practice. We argue
that reflective teaching is a worth undertaking and thus, present its advantages
despite there being some shortfalls for its use.
Progressive Teaching Methods BECS 202

8.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define the concepts Reflective Teaching, Action Research and Problem

Based Learning
 explain the process of reflection
 differentiate between Reflective Teaching and Action Research
 justify why reflective teaching is worthy undertaking
 explain the advantages and disadvantages of Reflective Teaching
 discuss the key components in Problem-Based Learning

8.2 Concept Definition

In this section, we define the terms reflective teaching, action research and
problem based learning.

8.2.1 Reflective teaching

Although there are various ways in which different people have defined and
explained reflection in teaching and learning overall, the most positive views
appear to agree that it is both intuitive in nature, and considered in depth. At
its best it is genuinely capable of helping us to develop, improve and change
our teaching, or as Crawley (2005;167), suggests, “critical reflection is about
challenging and testing out what you do as a teacher and being prepared to
act on the results”. According to Dewey (1933), to reflect is to look back
over what has been done so as to extract the net meanings, which are the
capital stock for intelligent dealing with further experiences. It is the heart of
intellectual organization and of the disciplined mind.

According to Peters (1991:95), “it is a special kind of practice... that involves

a systematic inquiry into the practice itself.”

Pollard (2005:13) defines reflective practice as “action that involves a

willingness to engage in constant self appraisal and development, which, among
other things it implies flexibility, rigorous analysis and social awareness”.

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From the above views, reflective practice is a mode that integrates or links
thought and action with reflection. It involves thinking about and critically
analysing one’s actions with the goal of improving one’s professional practice.
Engaging in reflective practice requires individuals to assume the perspective
of an external observer in order to identify the assumptions and feelings
underlying their practice and then to speculate about how these assumptions
and feelings affect practice. It is also acceptable to view reflective practice as
a means by which instructional practitioners can develop a greater level of
self-awareness about the nature and impact of their performance, an awareness
that creates opportunities for professional growth and development.

8.2.2 Concept of action research

Many definitions on action research have been advanced by various authors.
McCutcheon and Jung (1990:148) define Action Research as a “systemic
inquiry that is collective, collaborative, self-reflective, critical and undertaken
by participants in the inquiry”. On the other hand, Kemmis and McTaggert
(1990:5) assert the term to mean “a form of collective self-reflective inquiry
undertaken by participants in social situations in order to improve the rationality
and justice of their own social or educational practices, as well as their
understanding of these practices and the situations in which these practices
are carried out”. The third definition is offered by Rapoport (1970:499) as
cited in McKernan (1991:4) who defines Action Research as “research that
aims to contribute both to the practical concerns of people in an immediate
problematic situation and to the goals of social science by joint collaboration
within a mutually acceptable ethical framework”.

According to Sparks and Simmons (1989), action research is a form of staff

development that encourages and develops the skills of educators to become
more reflective practitioners, more methodical problem solvers, and more
thoughtful decision makers. As defined by Reason and Bradbury (2002),
action research is an interactive inquiry process that balances problem solving
actions implemented in a collaborative context with data-driven collaborative
analysis or research to understand underlying causes enabling future predictions
about personal and organisational change.

Within all these definitions there, are four basic themes: empowerment of
participants; collaboration through participation; acquisition of knowledge;
and social change. The process that the researcher goes through to achieve
these themes is a spiral of action research cycles consisting of four major
phrases: planning, acting, observing and reflecting.
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From the above assertions, you also develop a feeling that action research
leads to effective reflective practice. Action research, as the name implies, is
done simply by action, with the participation of all [Link] research
is, therefore, a reflective process of progressive problem solving led by
individuals working with others in teams or as part of a community of practice,
such as teachers, to improve the way they address issues and solve problems.

8.2.3 Problem Based Learning

Barrows (1980) defines Problem Based Learning (PBL) as the learning
that results from the process of working towards the understanding of a
resolution of a problem. The problem is encountered first in the learning process.
Barrows (1980) further emphasises PBL as being both a curriculum and a
process. The curriculum consists of carefully selected and designed problems
that demand from the learner acquisition of critical knowledge, problem-solving
proficiency, self-directed learning strategies and team participation skills. The
process replicates the common used systemic approach to resolving problems
or meeting challenges that are encountered in life and career (http://
[Link]/pbl/info/).

Finkle and Torp (1995) define problem-based learning as a curriculum

development and instructional system that simultaneously develops both
problem solving strategies and disciplinary knowledge bases and skills by
placing students in the active role of problem-solver confronted with an ill-
structured problem that mirrors real-world problems.

The above citations reveal that being an instructional method, problem-based

learning initiates students’ learning by creating a need to solve an authentic
problem. During the problem- solving process, students construct content
knowledge and develop problem-solving skills. They also acquire self-directed
learning skills while working toward a solution to an identified problem.

PBL is, therefore, an instructional method that challenges students to learn,

working cooperatively in groups to seek solutions to real world problems.
These problems are used to engage students’ curiosity and initiate learning the
subject matter. In the process, PBL prepares students to think critically and
analytically, and to find and use appropriate learning resources.

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8.3 Process of Reflection

In order to be an effective reflective classroom instructor you need to appreciate
issues surrounding the concept of reflection. In 1987, Donald Schon introduced
the concept of reflective practice as a critical process in refining one’s artistry
or craft in a specific discipline. Schon (1996) recommended reflective practice
as a way for beginners in a discipline to recognise consonance between their
own individual practices and those of successful practitioners.

As defined by Schon, reflective practice involves thoughtfully considering one’s

own experiences in applying knowledge to practice while being coached by
professionals in the discipline. After the concept of reflective practice was
introduced by Schon, many schools, colleges and departments of education
began designing teacher education and professional development programmes
based on this concept. Some proponents however, recommended that
reflective teaching combine John Dewey’s philosophy on the moral, situational
aspects of teaching with Schon‘s process for a more contextual approach to
the concept of reflective practice.

According to Dewey (1933), the process of reflection for teachers begins

when they experience a difficulty, troublesome event, or experience that cannot
be immediately resolved. Reflection commences when one inquires into his or
her experience and relevant knowledge to find meaning in his or her beliefs. It
has the potential to enable teachers to direct their activities with foresight and
to plan according to ends-in-view.

The term “reflective practice,” as coined by Schon (1987), focuses on the

ways people think about their experiences and formulate responses as the
experiences happen. This approach makes a clear distinction between “thinking
on action” and “thinking in action.” Thinking on action is the way of analysing
experiences as they happen while thinking in action determines how
responses are formulated. This whole idea is considered as thinking on your
feet. Reflective practice occurs at all stages of the teaching process, in planning,
action/execution, and evaluation. Reflection refers to thinking about teaching,
which involves the thoughts teachers have before, during, and after the actual
enactment of a lesson.

This construct is parallel to the thinking processes identified by Polya (1945).

In his conception of mathematical problem solving, for example, there are
three phases:

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‹ understanding
‹ planning
‹ looking back
Teachers should engage in similar types of thinking before they teach a lesson.
To achieve the desired results, teachers should reflect on their teaching goals
and methods and how these interface with the demographics and abilities of
their students. This process would allow them to clarify their knowledge base,
the subject content, and their students’ learning styles and to crystallise the
pedagogy to be implemented. Teachers must consider the challenges that
students may encounter and strategies to assist students in overcoming them.
Polya’s “looking back” phase is the reflective thinking that teachers engage in
after they teach a lesson. At the end of the lessons, teachers evaluate the
lesson goals and the actions of both themselves and their students as well as
define the points at which difficulties emerged. They must consider the strategies
employed and when necessary make modifications. This self- assessment
helps identify what was not addressed and the unexpected challenges of the
lesson. Failure to acknowledge these challenges could impede teachers’ self-
improvement and their students’ achievements.

In the planning stage, reflection can help to guide the choices made. In the
action stage, reflection can help the teacher to monitor the progress of the
lesson, be flexible, and adapt his or her strategies to the current situation.

In the evaluation stage, reflection can help the teacher to look back on the
lesson and think about what worked or did not work and why. This form of
reflection contributes to future planning and creates a cyclical action process.
However, this reflection on the teaching experience goes much beyond simple
descriptions. Such reflective teaching is informed teaching drawing on the
immediate experience, theory, and research in other settings, research in the
teachers’ own classrooms (action research), discussion with colleagues, and
feedback from students. In addition, reflective teaching holds values that
provide opportunities for teachers to inquire into other teaching methods,
further their learning, and use intuition, insight and artistry. Teachers, who
draw on their intuitions to complement their knowledge and what they
understand as a subject, are enabled to act in situations. Again these situations
assist in the “thinking on your feet” idea posed by Schon (1987). In education,
using intuition to inform learning is referred to as developing meta-cognitive
skills. These skills are important in developing the ability to understand and
make sense of experience, which are all integral processes of reflection. We
now present the process of reflection.
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8.3.1 How reflection takes place

The process of reflection, like any other known process, is cyclic. What follows
are the basic stages of the process of reflection. Many different approaches
can be employed if one wishes to become a critically reflective teacher,
including observation of oneself and others, team teaching, and exploring one’s
view of teaching through writing. Central to any approach used however, is a
three part process which involves the following stages:

Stage 1: The event itself

The starting point is an actual teaching episode, such as a lesson or other

instructional event. While the focus of critical reflection is usually the teacher’s
own teaching, self-reflection can also be stimulated by observation of another
person’s teaching.

Stage 2: Recollection of the event

The next stage in reflective examination of an experience is an account of

what happened, without explanation or evaluation. Several different
procedures are available during the recollection phase, including written
descriptions of an event, a video or audio recording of an event, or the use of
check lists or coding systems to capture details of the event.

Stage 3: Review and response to the event

Following a focus on objective description of the event, the participant returns

to the event and reviews it. The event is now processed at a deeper level, and
questions are asked about the experience.

8.3.3 Characteristics of reflective practice

Pollard and Tann (1993) laid out a set of six characteristics of reflective practice.
They argue that the reflective practitioners:

‹ have an active concern with aims and consequences, as well as means

and technical efficiency
‹ act in a cyclic or spiraling process in which the teachers monitor, evaluate,
and revise their own practice continuously
‹ require competence in methods of classroom enquiry (gathering data/
empirical competence, analytic competence, evaluative competence)
to support the development of teaching competence

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‹ requires attitudes of open-mindedness, responsibility and

wholeheartedness
‹ is based on teacher judgement which is informed partly by self-reflection
and partly by insights from educational disciplines
‹ is enhanced through collaboration and dialogue with colleagues
Figure 8.1 below helps to understand the stages in the process of reflective
teaching.

Figure 8.1: Process of refective teaching Adapted from Pollard, A

(2003:14)

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Activity 8.1
1. Giving practical examples, discuss the process of reflective thinking.
? 2. Show how reflection takes place.

8.4 How Reflective Teaching is different from Action

Research
Reflective practices are embedded within the process of action research.
Action research enables educators inquire, observe, collect data, and dialogue
during the school day. It is a form of self-reflective inquiry that is now being
used in school-based curriculum development, professional development,
school improvement schemes, and so on, and, as such, it actively involves
teachers as participants in their own educational process. According to McNiff
(1997), Action research and reflective teaching are both forms of staff
development. You have seen above that reflective teaching becomes effective
only if it is a result of Action Research.

One of the most important factors leading to teacher improvement and ultimately
improved student performance is effective staff development. “Effective
organizations recognize that their greatest assets are the individuals within
them, and so they make human resource development the linchpin for all
improvement efforts” (Dufour and Eaker, 1992:11).

Whereas the process of reflective teaching is basically characterised by 6

major stages, Action Research is characterized by five spiraling steps. The
steps, according to Kemmis and McTaggert (1990) are illustrated in Figure
8.2 given below.

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Figure 8.2: Action Research Process Adapted from Kemmis and McTaggert
(1990).

Activity 8.2
1. From your knowledge so far of Reflective Teaching and Action
? 2.
Research, discuss the similarities and differences of the two practices.
How are the two related?

8.5 Key attributes of Action Research

In order to get a deep understanding of Action Research and be able to
distinguish it from Reflective Teaching, we present below, the key attributes
of Action Research: problem solving, reflective, cyclic, collaborative in nature,
theory and practice, and experimental and non-traditional.

8.5.1 Problem solving

Action research is problem centered, client centered and action oriented. It
involves the client system in a diagnostic, active-learning, problem-finding,
and problem-solving process. Data are used as feedback in open joint sessions
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rather than in form of a written report. The client and the change agent work
collaboratively to identify and classify specific problems to create methods
for finding their real causes, and develop plans to deal with them concretely.

Action research is an interactive inquiry process in which the problem solving

actions are balanced in a collaborative context with data-driven collaborative
analysis or research to ensure potential causes in order to make predictions
about personal and organizational change (Reason and Bradbury, 2001).

8.5.2. Reflective and cyclical

Action research is a way of learning from and through one’s practice through
a series of reflective stages. It is an ongoing cyclical, self-rectifying methodology
used to maintain and improve the effectiveness of the client’s system by
equipping the system with necessary tools for self-analysis and self-renewal.
It is a continuous process in which the participants reflect continuously on
their learning from the actions and proceed to start new actions.

After a few decades of action research development, more focus is placed on

the action taken or on the research that results from the reflective understanding
of the actions. Similar to what is recorded in Wikipedia – The Free
Encyclopedia that action research is a reflective process of problem solving in
which individuals work with others as part of a community of practice to
improve the way they address and solve problems. It makes use of action
reflection cycles to express concerns, develop action plans, collect data,
evaluate the influences of action, and modify concerns, ideas and action based
on the evaluations.

8.5.3 Collaborative in nature

Action research aims to solve the problematic situation identified by participants
and tries to promote the goals of social science at the same time. There is a
dual commitment in action research to study a system and collaborate with
participants of the system in improving it at an expected direction. Its emphasis
on the importance of co-learning as the basic element of the research process
reveals that active collaboration of participants is required. Each participant’s
ideas are equally essential for creating interpretive categories of analysis and
negotiated among the participants. Thus, participants in action research are
co-researchers.

Action research includes a process of utilising a set of systematic cyclical

methods of planning, action taking, observing, evaluating and critical reflecting
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for the succeeding cycle (McNiff, 2002) with a set of goals to address identified
problem. Simply speaking, it is a collaborative methodology to improve practice
by:

‹ testing new ideas and implement action for change,

‹ involving direct participation in a dynamic research process
‹ monitoring and evaluating the effects of the researcher’s actions

8.5.4. Theory and practice

Theory and practice as an attribute ensures that participants reflect on issues
and makes clear the interpretations, biases, hypotheses and concerns upon
which judgments are made. Participants develop a deep understanding of
how forces interact to form complex patterns that can give rise to theoretical
considerations (O’Brien, 1998). Action research is a process of setting one’s
theory into practice.

8.5.5 Experimental and non-traditional

Action research is a type of experimental research focusing on the results of
the researcher’s direct actions of practice within a particular community aiming
at improving the performance of the community or a specific area (Dick,
2002; Reason & Bradbury, 2001; Hult and Lennung, 1980; McNiff, 2002).
Action research takes place in cycles. Each cycle is a discrete experiment –
taking action as a way of studying change.

Action research defies traditional social science. It moves beyond reflective

knowledge established by outside experts sampling variables to an active
theorising, data collecting and inquiring. It tries to avoid the traditional research
carried out by universities and governments where data are used to write the
papers and reports only. Research is planned to address specific issues and
the results are applied to the problems directly.

Historically, action research started with the work of Kurt Lewin, an influential
founder of social psychology.

8.6 Advantages of Action Research

There are several advantages of action research and we look at some of
these in this section.
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8.6.1 Empowerment to all participants

Action research is characterised by its degree of empowerment given to all
participants. There are no hidden controls or preemption of direction by the
researcher. Involvement of participants is of a knowing nature and
communication between all participants is essential. Action research involves
researcher and participants’ viewpoints of a problem. These viewpoints can
only be validated in unconstrained dialogue between researcher and the
participants. There must be free information flow between them.

8.6.2 Use of reflection to generate models

Action research refers to the systematic reflective study of one’s actions and
the effect of these actions in a workplace context. It involves deep inquiry into
one’s professional action. The researchers examine their work and seek for
improvements. They work with others to formulate new plans for action for
the succeeding cycle to improve the work practices of their community. It is a
way of learning from one’s experience through a series of reflective stages. It
is described by Schon (1983) as the use of reflection to generate models
from a set of previous knowledge. These models, (also called reflection-in-
actions) are used to re-frame a problem to bring about outcomes. With critical
and systematic reflection to avoid overlook of some important evidence, one
can have more confidence in the research conclusions.

8.6.3 Cyclical approach increases the generality of the

findings
Action research is an erratic, cyclical process of reflecting on practice, taking
an action, reflecting, and taking further action. Better understanding from each
cycle directs the way to improved actions. In each cycle, there is action and
critical reflection to review and plan what to do next. Action is followed by
critical reflection. Reflection is followed by action. The understanding achieved,
the conclusions drawn and the plans developed and tested in action.

The successive move across iterations strives to expand the research scope
which increases the generality of the findings. This effect is similar to that
caused by using a larger sample population in statistical studies. The experience
of previous iterations enables the researcher to improve effectiveness of the
invention to allow identification of new relevant units. This is rarely possible in
“one-shot” research projects. The successive iterations in the action research
cycle are used to improve research findings generality. This allows the collection
of data about the same units of analysis in relative independent settings.
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The successive iterations enable data collection at different period of the year
and also for long-term assessment of effects observed in previous iterations.
This avoids the effect caused by disconnected variables when the time span
of seasonal variations is longer than that of the whole research study.

8.6.4 Flexible but rigorous

Action research is a cyclic process which is flexible and responsive. One can
refine the research design as one learns more about the situation and does not
have to design the research in detail before starting. The design fits the situation
better if it gets better as one proceeds. Each cycle can move in the direction
of better action and better research. The flexibility of action research allows
imprecise beginnings to move towards appropriate endings. This cyclic process
provides more chances for learning from previous experience.

In action research researchers are encouraged to find out disconfirming

evidence – evidence which is unmatched or unexpected. Critical reflection in
each cycle enables correction of errors. The critical reflection is a search for
uncertain evidence. Furthermore, the hypotheses of the plans are examined in
action. The involvement of all parties can provide more complete information
about the situation. All these allow action research to pursue rigorous cognition.

8.6.5 Low control of the environment

High control of the environment may lead participants to behave in an artificial
way and bias the research results. The low control over the environment of
action research projects prevents manipulation to generate highly focused
data. Researchers collect a large amount of data to avoid missing important
evidence.

8.6.6 Bridging the gap between theory, research and practice

For action research, the researchers make explicit the theoretical justifications
for the actions, and question the bases of those justifications. The next practical
applications are subjected to further analysis, in a transformative cycle that
continuously interchanges emphasis between theory and practice. Action
research bridges the gap between theory, research and practice.

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8.7 Why is Reflective Teaching Worth Doing?

Reflective teaching is beneficial for both pre-service and in-service teachers.
Because it offers more advantages than disadvantages, teacher education
programmes are becoming more devoted to developing reflective practices
in their student teachers. Reflective teaching seeks to help novice teachers
become more aware of decision-making processes to help them determine
the effect their decisions have in the context in which they are implemented.
So, experience previous to a real job prepares professionals for a better
performance. Beyer (1984) has suggested, as typically the final portion of the
prospective teacher’s professional preparation, it is expected to provide
sufficient ‘real life’ experience to allow students to explore teaching methods
and styles, connect ‘theory’ learnt at college and ‘practice’ as experienced in
a school setting, become familiar with the demands of teaching, and acquire
the necessary skills and values needed to function adequately in that setting.

Since the classroom is the arena within which students will presumably spend
a major portion of their work lives, it seems reasonable to include the
experience of reflective teaching as a prelude to their professional activities.
Dewey (1933) adds that when teachers, novice or experienced, speculate,
reason, and contemplate using open-mindedness, wholeheartedness, and
responsibility, they will act with foresight and planning rather than basing their
actions on tradition, authority, or impulse. That is why, Dewey was among the
first to promote reflection as a means of professional development in teaching.
He believed that critical reflection is the most important quality a teacher whether
pre-service or in-service, may have and that it has much more impact on the
quality of schools and instruction than the teaching techniques one uses.

It is very encouraging to know that teacher education programmes usually

include extensive field practice before student teachers take full teaching
responsibilities. These field practices help pre-service teachers to analyse
different types of methodologies and strategies of teaching as they go along in
their training. However, it is important to pinpoint that reflective inquiry should
start at the training stage. It is rarely done and the benefits pre-service teachers
can obtain from this self-inquiry are valuable. As the student-teacher works
with his/her mentor, both share ideas, and through analysis, synthesis,
evaluation, and reflection, the situations that are encountered in these field
practices can be discussed and solved on the spot by means of reflection-in-
action and reflection-on-action. Zeichner and Liston (1987) emphasise that
when educational programmes include reflective inquiry as part of their
curriculum, these programmes seek to train student teachers who are willing
and able to reflect on the origins and consequences of their actions. These
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goals are directed towards enabling teachers to develop pedagogical habits

and skills necessary for self-directed growth and towards preparing them
individually and collectively, to participate as full partners in their making of
educational practices.

Schon (1987:18) has called for the inclusion of reflective practices in education
when he says:

…the professional schools must rethink both the epistemology of practice and
the pedagogical assumptions on which their curricula are based and must bend
their institutions to accommodate the reflective practicum as a key element of
professional education.

The risk of not doing what Schon (1987) proposed is that practice “fossilises.”
In fact, there are teachers who teach the same course several times, and they
use exactly the same strategies throughout the years without considering the
needs of students from group to group. They do not realise that these practices
sometimes are to blame for the decline in students’ achievement. However,
many teachers still believe that the problem lies in the students’ abilities, not in
their teaching. That is why in-service teachers should be the first ones to view
reflection and inquiry as key components of teacher development. In-service
teachers cannot continue guiding their teaching practices by impulse or routine.
Instead, they should bring a change in classroom settings guided by reflection,
inquiry and critical thinking

Reflective teaching is undoubtedly a valid means towards effective teaching

practices. Authors like Richards, Lockhart, Ramirez, and Wallace, have carried
out studies to help English as a Second Language (ESL) teachers to teach
reflectively. Bartlett (1990:214) states “for teachers of students of diverse
ethnic backgrounds, becoming a reflective teacher offers a very real challenge”.
This is true because teaching a second language involves many different factors,
as the ones mentioned previously, that need to be considered, and which may
affect both teaching and learning. Ramirez (1995) adds that in the second
language classroom, reflective teaching may entail asking a number of “what”
and “why” questions about teaching practices, reasons for language study,
and explanations for students` success or failure. These questions make teachers
learn what is good or bad, what works or does not work, what motivates or
frustrates learners, what facilitates or hinders learning. Thus, language teachers
in general need to know about linguistics, education, psychology, and any
other field that may affect the teaching/learning process. Being theoretically
illustrated bridge the gap towards appropriate and efficient ESL/EFL
instruction.

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Danielson and McGreal (2000: 48) elaborated on the importance of reflection

for professional growth and stated, “The very act of reflection, it appears, is a
highly productive vehicle for professional learning”. Danielson and McGreal
(2000), Kemmis and McTaggert (1990), McNiff (1997), and Schon (1983,
1987) focused on the importance of teachers critically reflecting on their
practice. Each asserted that teacher introspection and on-going discussions
about their own practices were very important. The process of action research
provides a structured, disciplined approach to reflecting about the teaching
and learning process. Danielson and McGreal (2000) state that a few activities
are more powerful for professional learning than reflection on practice.
Likewise, Schon (1983, 1987) referred to the thinking practices that occurred
while in the midst of teaching as reflection in action. He described this reflection
in action as thinking about what one is doing while one is doing it. Reflection
on action evokes thinking critically about one’s actions after they have
occurred. This type of reflection helps us gain a deeper understanding of what
we already know.

In other words, reflection can help us to feel more aware of and confident in
ourselves generally, and in our teaching role, in particular. Reflection as a
practice can help us to:

‹ make the best use of the knowledge available

‹ be conscious of our potential for bias and discrimination
‹ challenge and develop the existing professional knowledge base
‹ maximise our own opportunities for learning
‹ recognise what we do well so that we can apply these skills in other
situations
‹ improve professional judgment
‹ learn from successes and mistakes to enhance development
‹ plan for future situations and therefore respond more positively to change
‹ provide more detailed information on student performance during
specific aspects of the lesson than I could have gathered on my own
‹ reveal unexpected information about interaction between students during
a lesson
‹ provide useful information on the group dynamics that occur during
group work
‹ makes the teacher more aware of the limited range of teaching strategies
that I have been using
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‹ develop in teachers better time management strategies

‹ help to develop a better working relationship with colleagues

8.8 Suggested Procedures for Reflective Teaching

People unfamiliar with reflecting teaching may logically assume that reflective
teaching is an isolated practice where we find a time and place to be alone
and think. It is much more than that. It is a serious process. Reflection asks
practitioners to stop, to slow down in order to notice, analyse, and inquire on
what they are doing. It tells them to relate theory and practice, to evaluate
both old and new teaching experiences, and to make interpretations on the
situations encountered.

8.8.1 Use of Collaborative Research

In fact, reflective teaching, as defined by Cruickshank and Applegate (1981)
involves collaborative action research. Collaborative involvement in action
research strengthens the decisions that teachers make on professional practice
through critical thinking, identification of classroom situations, planning,
observation, reflection, and intervention. Kemmis and McTaggert (1990) have
highlighted the importance of collaborative action research: Collaborative action
research is a powerful form of staff development because it is practice to
theory rather than theory to practice. Teachers are encouraged to reach their
own solutions and this is far more attractive and has more impact than being
presented with ideals which cannot be attained.

Kemmis and McTaggart (1990) cited in Burns (1999) have listed a number
of benefits of action research. The benefits are, among others:

‹ thinking systematically about what happens in the classroom

‹ implementing action where improvements are thought to be possible
‹ monitoring and evaluating the effects of the action with a view to
continuing the improvement
‹ monitoring complex situations critically and practically
‹ implementing flexible approach to classroom improvement through action
and reflection
‹ researching the real, complex and often confusing circumstances and
constraints
‹ recognising and translating evolving ideas into action
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8.8.2 Making journal entries/Teachers’ diaries

Another effective way of inquiring our own teaching and practices is by being
committed in journal entries/or teachers’ diaries. Journal entries need to be
made regularly, preferably daily, if possible, and immediately after class. It is
important to review the notes while asking ourselves questions like “why do I
do what I do?”, “What is the role of students in my class?”

Richards and Lockhart (1994) have pointed out that colleagues can share a
journal and get together to discuss it. These journal entries help teachers
understand themselves, understand their classes, and understand both the
teacher’s and learner’s experiences as the lesson was developed.

Wallace (1998) has explained that journals are excellent tools for reflection
because they:

‹ provide effective means of identifying variables that are important to

individual teachers and students
‹ enhance awareness about the way a teacher teaches and a student
learns
‹ provide a first-hand account of teaching and learning experiences
‹ provide an on-going record of classroom events and teacher and learner
reflections
‹ enable the researcher to relate classroom events and examine trends
emerging from the diaries
Journal writing is becoming more widely acknowledged as a valuable tool for
developing critical reflection. The goals of journal writing according to Powell
(1985) and Bailey (1990) are to:

‹ provide a record of the significant learning experiences that have taken

place
‹ help the participant come into touch and keep in touch with the self-
development process that is taking place for them
‹ provide the participants with an opportunity to express, in a personal
and dynamic way, their self-development
‹ foster a creative interaction between:
‹ the participant and the self-development process that is taking place
‹ the participant and other participants who are also in the process of
self-development

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‹ the participant and the facilitator whose role it is to foster such

development
While procedures for diary keeping vary, the participant usually keeps a regular
account of learning or teaching experiences, recording reflections on what he
or she did as well as straightforward descriptions of events, which may be
used as a basis for later reflection. The diary serves as a means for interaction
between the writer, the facilitator, and, sometimes, other participants.

Likewise, students’ diaries are one of the most valuable instruments to collect
rich and thick data from the learners when developing action research. Learners
have so many things to say. They are the ones who are affected by our teaching,
so getting feedback from them is productive, especially for inquiry groups
who can recall the information students provide and deeply analyse what they
have to say of our teaching. The valuable aspect of diaries is that our students
are telling us their feelings as they experience the language: if they liked the
activities or not, if students feel intimidated, stressed or anxious. Imagine the
quantity of feedback teachers can obtain through this observational technique
and the amount of reflection that can be done to make necessary changes for
the benefit of our students.

However, student diaries can be very subjective and they are based only on
students’ perceptions of our classes, but this information can be triangulated
with other observational data collection techniques such as video and audio
recordings.

8.8.3 Peer observation

Peer observation can provide opportunities for teachers to view each other’s
teaching in order to expose them to different teaching styles and to provide
opportunities for critical reflection on their own teaching. In a peer observation
project to be initiated in a department, the following guidelines could be
developed.

Each participant would both observe and be observed. Teachers would

work in pairs and take turns observing each other’s classes.

Pre-observation orientation session

Prior to each observation, the two teachers would meet to discuss the nature
of the class to be observed, the kind of material being taught, the teachers’
approach to teaching, the kinds of students in the class, typical patterns of
interaction and class participation, and any problems that might be expected.
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The teacher being observed also assigns the observer a goal for the observation
and a task to accomplish. The task involves collecting information about some
aspect of the lesson, but does not include any evaluation of the lesson.
Observation procedures or instruments to be used are agreed upon during
this session and a schedule for the observations arranged.

The observation

The observer then visits his or her partner’s class and completes the observation
using the procedures that both partners had agreed on.

Post-observation

The two teachers would meet as soon as possible after the lesson. The observer
would report on the information that had been collected and discuss it with
the teacher (Richards and Lockhart, 1991). The teachers identified a variety
of different aspects of their lessons for their partners to observe and collect
information on. These included organisation of the lesson, teacher’s time
management, students’ performance on tasks, time-on-task, teacher questions
and student responses, student performance during pair work, classroom
interaction and class performance during a new teaching activity, and students’
use of the first language or English during group work.

8.8.4 Written accounts of experiences

Another useful way of engaging in the reflective process is through the use of
written accounts of experiences. Personal accounts of experiences through
writing are common in other disciplines (Powell 1985) and their potential is
increasingly being recognised in teacher education. A number of different
approaches can be used.

8.8.5 Self-reports
Pak (1985) asserts that self-reporting involves completing an inventory or
check list in which the teacher indicates which teaching practices were used
within a lesson or within a specified time period and how often they were
employed. The inventory may be completed individually or in group sessions.
The accuracy of self-reports is found to increase when teachers focus on the
teaching of specific skills in a particular classroom context and when the self-
report instrument is carefully constructed to reflect a wide range of potential
teaching practices and behaviours (Richards, 1990). Self-reporting allows
teachers to make a regular assessment of what they are doing in the classroom.
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They can check to see to what extent their assumptions about their own
teaching are reflected in their actual teaching practices. For example, a teacher
could use self-reporting to find out the kinds of teaching activities being regularly
used, whether all of the programme’s goals are being addressed, the degree
to which personal goals for a class are being met, and the kinds of activities
which seem to work well or not to work well.

8.8.6 Autobiographies
Abbs (1974) discusses the use of autobiographies in teacher preparation.
Small groups of around 12 student teachers meet for an hour each week for
at least 10 weeks. During this period of time, each student works at creating
a written account of his or her educational experience and the weekly meetings
are used to enable each person to read a passage from his or her autobiography
so that it can be supported, commented upon by peers and the teacher. Powell
(1985) described the use of reaction-sheets, the sheets student teachers
complete after a learning activity has been completed – in which they are
encouraged to stand back from what they had been doing and think about
what it meant for their own learning and what it entailed for their work as
teachers of others. Students work in pairs with a co-operating teacher and
take turns teaching. One serves as observer while the other teaches, and
completes a reaction sheet during the lesson. The reaction sheet contains
questions such as:

‹ What aspects of the lesson were most effective?

‹ What aspects of the lesson were least effective?
‹ Would you have taught any aspect of the lesson differently? Why?”
The student who teaches also completes his or her own reaction sheet after
the lesson. Then the two compare their reactions to the lesson.

8.8.7 Collaborative diary keeping

A group of teachers may also collaborate in journal writing. According to
Brock, Ju and Wong (1991), a group of colleagues explored the value of
collaborative diary-keeping as a way of developing a critically reflective view
of their teaching Throughout a 10 week teaching term, they kept diaries on
their teaching, read each other’s diaries, and discussed their teaching and
diary keeping experiences on a weekly basis. They also recorded and later
transcribed their group discussions and subsequently analysed their diary
entries, their written responses to each other’s entries and the transcripts of
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their discussions, in order to determine how these three interacted and what
issues occurred most frequently. They reported that collaborative diary-
keeping brought several benefits to their development as second language
teachers. It raised their awareness of classroom processes and prompted
them to consider those processes more deeply than they may otherwise have.
Collaborative diary-keeping also provided encouragement and support; it
served as a source of teaching ideas and suggestions; and in some sense it
gave them a way to observe one another’s teaching from a “safe distance”.

By reading one another’s diary entries, these teachers were able to share
their teaching experiences, and they often felt that they were learning as much
from one another’s entries as they were from their own. Reading and responding
to the entries led them back to their own teaching to consider how and why
they taught as they did.

However, some shortcomings of collaborative diary-keeping were discovered

ion the process. We list some of the shortcomings:

‹ It is more effective if the scope of issues considered is focused more

narrowly.
‹ It requires a large block of time which may not be available particularly
in examination oriented education systems.
‹ Participants must be comfortable in sharing both pleasant and unpleasant
experiences and be committed to gaining a clearer picture of their
teaching and their classrooms.

8.8.8 Audio and video recording of lessons

For many aspects of teaching, audio or video recording of lessons can also
provide a basis for reflection. While there are many useful insights to be gained
from diaries and self-reports, they cannot capture the moment to moment
processes of teaching. Many things happen simultaneously in a classroom,
and some aspects of a lesson cannot be recalled. It would be of little value for
example, to attempt to recall the proportion of Yes-No Questions to WH-
Questions a teacher used during a lesson, or to estimate the degree to which
teacher time was shared among higher and lower ability students. Many
significant classroom events may not have been observed by the teacher, let
alone remembered, hence the need to supplement diaries or self-reports with
recordings of actual lessons.

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At its simplest, a tape recorder is located in a place where it can capture the
exchanges which take place during a lesson. With the microphone placed on
the teacher’s table, much of the teacher’s language can be recorded as well
as the exchanges of many of the students in the class. Pak (1985) recommends
recording for a one or two week period and then randomly selecting a cassette
for closer analysis. This recording could be used as the basis for an initial
assessment. Where video facilities are available in a school, the teacher can
request to have a lesson recorded, or with access to video equipment, students
themselves can be assigned this responsibility. A 30 minute recording usually
provides more than sufficient data for analysis. The goal is to capture as much
of the interaction of the class as possible, both teacher to class and student to
student. Once the initial novelty wears off, both students and teacher accept
the presence of the technician with the camera, and the class proceeds with
minimum disruption.

8.8.9 Class seating arrangements

Seating charts can be used to determine seating arrangements for every task
in the classroom settings. With this layout of class sessions by the observer,
the teacher can see how seating arrangements take place in several classes
and then revise them with a colleague to determine if they are appropriate or
not. In addition, structured observation charts are very helpful because they
also contain columns with headings on specific details which are worthwhile
observing like learner error versus teacher response, teacher role/student role.
Another example can be lesson plan phases where the focus is on time planned
versus actual lesson phases/actual time spent; or teacher question/student
response, teacher feedback/student response to feedback. All of these
observation methods can highlight aspects of the lesson and of the teacher’s
practice he or she is unaware of. Being a reflective practitioner/action researcher
demands teaching, thinking back, describing, investigating reasons, and
discovering new understandings, deciding what to do next.

Activity 8.3
1. Discuss the merits and demerits of each of the nine procedures for
? 2.
reflective teaching as presented above.
How can the weaknesses in the suggested procedures be minimised?

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8.9 Problem Based Learning (PBL)

Problem-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered instructional strategy
that is used to promote active learning, while learners investigate authentic
problems. PBL is characterised by the use of real world and ill-structured
problems, those that are complex and sometimes have multiple responses,
requiring the learner to acquire critical knowledge, problem solving skills,
self-directed strategies, and team participation skills. Instead of the teacher
simply assigning readings, providing lectures or walking students through a
solution, the learners are presented with or identify their own problem that
drives their inquiry and learning process.

8.9.1 Key components in Problem-Based Learning process

According to Seifert and Simmons (1997), the Problem-based Learning model
involves the use of real problems to create an active, student-centred learning
environment. The key components of the process are:

‹ Problem formulation
‹ Data collection
‹ Brainstorming solutions
‹ Evaluating and selecting solutions
‹ Implementing the solution
These components give the students direction and provide them with a format
for completing the written part of the final product.

Problem formulation is a strategy composed of three questions that give

students a format for beginning the problem-solving process.

‹ What do we know?
‹ What do we need to know?
‹ What should we do?
The data collection component is designed around the answers to the “What
do we know questions” and involves different methods of research. For
example, it might involve, interviewing strategies, survey techniques, library
research, and Internet research techniques. In the data collection component,
students are encouraged to use their imagination as they collect data by
searching in places they would not normally search, view problems from many
perspectives, listen carefully and be open to new ideas.
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The brainstorming solutions component involves the students immersing

themselves in the problem by reviewing as many things as possible about the
ideas. It may also require the students to rearrange the order of the parts,
keep a list of ideas, and share ideas.

Then there is the evaluating and selecting of the solution component.

This is where students need to access the selected solution based on the data
that they have gathered. It is important that the whole group come to a
consensus before choosing a final solution.

Implementing the solution is vital and reflects the cohesiveness of the group,
because it is at this point that the group must defend their solution based on
their data. The final component is product assessment. This is left up to the
discretion of the teacher/tutor. Many times the tutors decide to let the students
develop their own assessment.

Problem-Based Learning (PBL) begun in 1950’s as a movement to restructure

medical school education unlike traditional instruction that culminates in a
problem after basic instruction on facts and skills, PBL begins with a problem,
teaching facts and skills in a relevant context PBL has been used since the
1950’s. While it originated in universities, it is now also employed in businesses
and classrooms.

Activity 8.4
1. Using practical examples drawn from a classroom situation, discuss
? 2.
the key components of the Problem Based Learning process.
What do you perceive to be the major strengths and weaknesses of
the Problem Based Learning process?

8.9.2 Tenets of PBL

Some of the basic tenets of Problem Based Learning are that it:

‹ requires students to solve authentic, open-ended problems with many

correct answers possible
‹ helps authentic problems faced by educators, school administrators,
counsellors and so on
‹ emphasises students’ pre-existing knowledge that is, “start with what
you know”

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‹ makes students to actively participate by helping in planning, organising,

and evaluating the problem solving process
‹ stresses interdisciplinary connections
‹ enables the students to undertake authentic roles
Problems given to students are ill-defined with many potential solutions.
Problems should be authentic and similar to those faced by professionals in a
given field. For example, pre-service teachers should be given difficult
classroom situations to resolve, or engineering students should be given the
task of planning a difficult, new structure. Students must be involved in authentic
practices. If students in business management are given an organisational
problem to overcome, they must diagnose the situation in the same manner as
an expert consultant, perhaps interviewing key players and reviewing available
documents. It is necessary to provide students with access to considerable
information and resources to solve an open-ended problem. Access is the
key word, since students should not be provided a well-structured set of
requisite resources, but rather, access to many resources for research.
Determining and undertaking appropriate research strategies is an important
by-product of PBL.

8.9.3 Basic Steps of PBL

Problem based learning follows basically the following steps:

‹ students divided into groups

‹ real problem is presented and discussed
‹ students identify what is known, what information is needed, and what
strategies or next steps to take
‹ individuals research different issues, gather resources
‹ resources evaluated in group
‹ cycle repeats until students feel the problem has been framed adequately
and all issues have been addressed
‹ possible actions, recommendations, solutions, or hypotheses are
generated
‹ tutor groups conduct peer/self-assessments
Students are given a problem, they discuss it, then write down what information
is known, what information is needed, and what steps to take. When gaps are
identified in needed information, these “learning issues” are divided among
group members for further research. After students share and evaluate the
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resources they’ve gathered for the various learning issues, they decide if further
information is required. If so, research continues. If not, a recommendation is
formed. PBL sessions involve students in critiquing one another’s performance.
Students must comment on their own efforts and each group member’s efforts.

8.9.4 Application in and effects on classrooms and similar

settings
A problem-based learning environment provides learners with an instructional
mechanism that can increase their higher-order thinking skills while exploring
authentic and ill-structured problems, participating in social interactions, and
receiving coaching from peers and teachers. However, PBL also brings cognitive
challenges. For example, students must be challenged to clarify the causes of
the problem, to decide important facts in problem situations, and to generate
hypotheses for the solutions. To appropriately solve a problem in a PBL
environment, it is important that students reflect on their understanding of an
issue, new knowledge to develop a solution, and how their new knowledge
can be used to address the situation. Reflecting on the problem helps learners
to generate concepts and abstractions and enhance the transfer of learning to
new problems (Barrow, 1998).

Research suggests that various elements in the learning environment can prompt
reflective thinking (Andrusyszyn and Daive, 1997; Griffith and Frieden, 2000;
Lin, Hmelo, Kinzer, and Secules, 1999). Ill-structured, authentic, and complex
tasks in a PBL environment, for instance are known to promote reflective
thinking. These features of the task help students think reflectively because
students have to investigate the problem in order to gather appropriate
information to solve the problem. Another important element prompting
reflective thinking is the type of instructional method used. Virtanen et al.
(1999) found that both an inquiry-oriented and an explanation-oriented
instructional method were effective in PBL environment. The inquiry-oriented
method facilitates reflective thinking by asking reflective questions while the
explanation-oriented method directs learners to reflect on important concepts.

Creating flexible and active learning environments is also important in prompting

reflective thinking during PBL. The elements that make the learning environment
active and student-centered include allowing students to have enough wait-
time to think before answering, providing a learner-controlled instruction, and
promoting cooperative and collaborative learning (Rowe, 1974; Williams,
1996). Finally, scaffolding tools are important in prompting reflective thinking
during PBL. Kinchin and Hay (2000) reported on the effectiveness of journal
writing. Research also suggested that question prompts or concept maps could
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be used as aids to prompt reflective learning (Barrow, 1998). Therefore, key

factors that encourage students to reflect upon learning in a PBL environment
seem to focus on the use of ill-structured and authentic tasks, the type of
instructional methods, supportive and active learning environments, and
scaffolding tools. Problem-based Learning provides the instructional
mechanisms for prompting learner reflective thinking. One of the major features
of project-based learning is the all important community of inquiry. Inquiry is
at the heart of PBL. This community of inquiry programme consists of five
critical pieces that work together, these same five pieces can be found in
problem-based learning, and according to McGraw (2003) they are:

‹ active, purposeful learning

‹ a learning setting that pays attention to multiple zones of proximal
development
‹ the legitimisation of difference
‹ a community of discourse
‹ a community of practice
Problem-based learning fosters a community of learning through collaborative
and engaging group interaction. In PBL, learners depend on each other to
accomplish their tasks. This means that members are responsible to each
other and the group, are mutually respectful, and identify as part of the group.
All members of the learning community must take responsibility for their
accomplishments in PBL.

Problem based learning has been applauded for the reasons that it:

‹ develops critical and creative thinking

‹ creates effective problem-solvers
‹ increases motivation
‹ encourages lateral thinking
‹ improves communication and networking skills
‹ is based on real-life situations

8.10 Advantages of Reflective Teaching

The primary benefit of reflective practice for teachers is a deeper understanding
of their own teaching style and ultimately, greater effectiveness as a teacher.
However, other specific benefits noted in literature include:
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‹ the validation of a teacher’s ideals

‹ beneficial challenges to tradition
‹ the recognition of teaching as artistry
‹ respect for diversity in applying theory to classroom practice
Roffey-Barentson and Malthouse (2009) enumerate the benefits of reflective
practice which are:

‹ improving your teaching practice

‹ enhancing problem solving skills
‹ becoming a critical thinker
‹ making effective decisions as you have to weigh up, and decide and do
or not do
‹ improving your own organisational skills
‹ managing personal change
‹ acknowledging personal values
‹ taking your own advice
‹ recognising emancipatory benefits

8.11 Disadvantages/Challenges Associated with

Reflective Teaching
According to Kennett (2010:75), there can be challenges faced when we use
reflective practice. These challenges, among others, are summarised below.

8.11.1 Time
When a teacher‘s time is pressured, which is often the case, the teacher may
not afford to take special time to reflect on his/her practice in the ways suggested
above. We argue that you work both more effectively and efficiently if you
use reflective practice, because you are able to make more clear and informed
decisions, be more aware of what is likely to work and what is not likely to,
and more up to date with what works elsewhere. This all saves time which
would be wasted elsewhere. In order to meet this challenge however, you
have to find strategies for making time available.

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8.11.2 Emotions
Reflecting carefully on what you do can be challenging and scary. You may
well come to some conclusions which have major consequences for you as a
professional. If you have doubts about yourself as a person and as a
professional, these can appear at times to be reinforced by reflection. As you
become more proficient both in the techniques of reflective practice, and in
your teaching, your fears should be replaced by confidence. This challenge
can be met by developing ways both to understand and make use of your
emotions.

8.11.3 Not being naturally reflective

Some teachers may well be individuals who do not find reflection something
they naturally get involved in. They may well be ‘doers’ rather than ‘thinkers’.
This may well be the case with their students as well.

Activity 8.5
1. Critically analyse the major strengths and weaknesses of reflective
? 2.
teaching.
How applicable is the reflective teaching principle to the classroom
situation?

8.13 Summary
Deliberations in this unit have shown that the process of reflection is not easy.
In fact, just getting engaged in it might be difficult because of several constraints
alluded to above. Thinking about all the possible variables that affect the
teaching/learning process while we are teaching or reflecting-in-action, might
be overwhelming and confusing. Because it is almost humanly impossible to
handle all the information at the same time, reflective teaching has been designed
as a process. It means taking one step at a time, approaching knowledge with
an open mind and a wholehearted attitude, and committed responsibility. In
this unit we demonstrated that reflective teaching is worth trying. We are
convinced that the issues raised herein will help you become successful
classroom practitioners. Through guided reflection on field experiences, self-
analysis and evaluation, professional development can be assured. Teachers

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must reflect, analyse, and adjust or change their practice whenever it is

necessary.

By gaining a better understanding of their own individual teaching styles through

reflective practice, you as teachers can improve your effectiveness in the
classroom. We have demonstrated that experience alone is insufficient for
professional growth, but that experience coupled with reflection can be a
powerful impetus for teacher development. In Unit 9, we discuss issues to do
with assessment, measurement and evaluation in teaching.

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References
Anderson, G. (1998). Fundamentals of Educational Research. London:
Falmer Press.
Bailey, K.M. (1990). The Use of Diary Studies in Teacher Education
Programmes. In J.C. Richards and D. Nunan (Eds), Second Language
Teacher Education (pp. 215- 226). New York: Cambridge
University Press.
Banner, J., and Cannon, H. (1997). The Elements of Teaching. New Haven:
Yale University.
Barrow, H.S. (1998). The Essentials of Problem-based Learning. Journal
of Dental Education, 62(9), 630-633.
Bartlett, L. (1990). Teacher Development through Reflective Teaching.
Jack. [Link] and D. Nunan. Second language teacher education.
New York: Cambridge University Press.
Beyer, L. (1984). “Field experience, ideology, and the development of critical
reflectivity”. Journal of Teaching for Education, 35 (3), 36-41.
Brookfield, S. (1995), Becoming a Critically Reflective Teacher , Jossey-
Bass, San Francisco.
Burns, A. (1999). Collaborative Action Research for English Language
Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Calhoun, E. (1994). How to use action research in the self-renewing school.
Alexandria, classrooms. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Cruickshank, D. and Applegate, J. (1981). Reflective teaching as a strategy
for teacher growth.
Danielson, C., and McGreal T. (2000). Teacher evaluation: To enhance
professional Deakin University Press.
Dick, B. (2002). “Action research: Action and research” Retrieved from
[Link] 23 September
2011.
Dufour, R., and Eaker, R. (1992). Creating the New American
School. Bloomington, Education. New York: Teachers College Press.
Farrell, T. (1998). “Reflective teaching: The Principles and Practices”. English
Teaching Forum, 36 (4), 10 – 17.
Gordon, P.R., Rogers, A.M., Comfort, M., Gavula, N. and McGee, B.P.
(2001). A Taste of Problem-based Learning increase Achievement of
Urban Minority Middle-school Students. Educational Horizons,
79(4), 171-175.
Griffith, B. and Frieden, G. (2000). Facilitating Reflective Thinking. Counsellor
Education & Supervision, 40(2), 82-92.
Kemmis,S., and McTaggert, R., (1990). The Action Research Planner,
Geelong Victoria: Deakin University Press.
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McGraw, D. (2003). Developing a Community of Learners. Learning &

Leading with Technology, 30(7), 43-45.
McCutcheon, G., and Jurg, B., (1990). Alternative Perspectives on Action
Research. Theory into Practice Volume 24, Number 3.
McKernan, J., (1991). Curriculum Action Research. A Handbook of
Methods and Resources for the Reflective Practitioner, London:
Kogan Page.
McNiff, (2002) Action research for professional development. Retrieved from
[Link] on 23 September 2011.
O’Brien, R. (2001). “An overview of the methodological approach of action
research.” In Roberto Richardson (Ed.), Theory and Practice of
Action Research. João Pessoa, Brazil: Universidade Federal da
Paraíba. (English version) Retrieved from [Link]
papers/[Link] .on 21/09/11.
Pak, J. (1985). Find Out How You Teach. Adelaide, Australia: National
Curriculum Resource Centre.
Peters, J. (1991). “Strategies for Reflective Practice.” In professional
development for Education, no. 51, edited by [Link]. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Polya, G. (1945). How to solve it?. Educators of adults. N e w
Directions for Adult and Continuing Garden City, New Jersey:
Doubleday
Ramirez, A. (1992). Creating Contexts for Second Language Acquisition:
Theory and Practice. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision
and Curriculum Development.
Rapoport, R. N., (1970). Three Dilemmas in Action Research cited i n
McKernan, J., (1991). Curriculum Action Research. A Handbook
of Method and Resources for the Reflective Practitioner, London:
Kogan Page.
Reason, P. and Bradbury, H., (Ed.) (2001).The SAGE Handbook of Action
Research. Participative Inquiry and Practice. (1st ed). London: Sage.
Richards, J, C. (2000). Beyond Training. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Schon, D. (1983). The Reflective Practitioner: How professionals think
in Action. New York: Basic Books.
Schon, D. (1987). Educating the Reflective Practitioner. San Francisco:
Jossey Bass.
Stringer, E.T. (1999). Action Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications.
Zeichner, K.M. and Liston, D.P. (1987). Traditions of Reform in US Teacher
Education, Journal of Teacher education, 34, 3-9.
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Unit Nine
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Assessment, Measurement and

Evaluation in Teaching

9.0 Introduction

I n this unit, we present to you, issues on testing, measurement, evaluation

and assessment. Teachers are required to have a clear understanding of
their students’ abilities. Knowledge of assessment, measurement and
evaluation is important to you as a teacher, to enable you to gain information
about students learning progress. In order to make a variety of classroom
decisions, you need to understand the assessment, measurement and evaluation
procedures because the processes are integral to effective instruction and
learning in the schools.
Progressive Teaching Methods BECS 202

9.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 define the terms test, measurement, evaluation, assessment, validity
and reliability
 describe the rational for assessment
 outline the different types of classroom tests
 list the various approaches to assessment
 discuss what should be measured when assessing student performance
 apply additional measurement techniques

9.2 Definition of Concepts

In this section we define the terms you come across in your studies namely,
test, measurement, evaluation and assessment.

9.2.1 Test
A test is a series of tasks used to obtain systematic observations presumed to
be representative of educational or psychological traits (Sax 1989: 18). Thus,
a test may be a set of questions administered during a period of time under
reasonable, comparable conditions for all students. A test requires examinees
to respond to items or tasks from which an examiner infers something about
the attribute. In testing, the extent of response provides a basis for
measurement, for example, one can say seven out of ten of his/her responses
are correct. The use of tests can be used as one way of measurement but
measurement can be made without basing them on tests.

9.2.2 Measurement
According to Lin and Gronlund (2003:3),”Measurement is a process of
collecting quantitative data representing the degree of existence in any entity
or characteristic by use of such approaches as multiple choice tests and essays.
Stanley (1964:2) also defines measurement as “the administration and scoring
of test”. Measurement is therefore, the process of assigning numbers (score)
to the test or examinations written by pupils. The term measurement is not
synonymous with the administration of a test. In measurement, information
can be collected via a process such as observation and analysis. A programme

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aimed at improving student behaviour for example, might use data such as
number of days absent, number of referrals for disciplinary action and
expulsion. In measurement, qualitative data can be obtained through numerical
methods.

9.2.3 Evaluation
Evaluation is the decision on the value judgment of measurement result in
respect to pre specified criteria (Lin and Gronlund, 2000). Evaluation means
the qualitative descriptions of pupil’s behaviours such descriptions are based
on a composite of different types of measurements obtained from tests,
projects, assignments report and examination (Popham 1981). The moment
you as a teacher says who has passed, who has failed, who should go to class
A or B, you are making judgments. Evaluations are much more comprehensive
than measurement which is limited to quantitative descriptions of pupil’s
behaviour.

9.2.4 Assessment
Assessment is a full range of procedures used to gain information about students’
learning through (observations, rating of performance, paper and pencil tests)
and the formation of value judgments (Lin and Gronlund 2000:23). According
to NCCA (2004:23), “Assessment is a process of gathering, recording,
interpreting, using and communicating information about a child’s progress
and achievement during the development of knowledge, concepts, skills and
attitudes. Assessment, therefore involves much more than testing, measurement
and evaluation because it includes both measurement procedures and non-
measurement procedures such as informal observations for describing changes
in students’ performances as well as value judgment concerning desirability of
change.

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Activity 9.1
1. Discuss the assertion that assessment is an integral part of conventional
? 2.
classroom teaching and learning.
Define the terms testing, measurement, evaluation and assessment.
3. Describe the similarities and differences between measurement and
evaluation.
4. Distinguish the terms measurement and evaluation and show their
relevance to the teaching and learning situation.
5. Discuss the importance of the following processes in the teaching/
learning situation: testing, measurement, evaluation, and assessment.

9.3 Rationale for Testing, Measurement, Evaluation

and Assessment
Assessment is central to the process of teaching and learning. The introduction
to the Primary school curriculum (1999) in NCCA (2004) strongly supports
that assessment contributes significantly to teaching/learning and states that it:

‹ is used to monitor the learning process and to ascertain achievement in

each area of the curriculum
‹ gives the teacher a comprehensive picture of short term and long term
needs of the child and plans future work accordingly
‹ is used to identify children with specific learning difficulties so that the
nature of the support and assistance they need can be ascertained and
appropriate programmes put in place to enable them to cope with
particular difficulties they are encountering
‹ assists the communication about children’s progress and development,
between the teacher and child, between teacher and parent and between
teacher and teacher
Stiggins and Conklin (1992) contend that an assessment process fits in a
wide variety of classroom decision making contexts and saves a means of
conveying information to students and teachers in order to make decisions
that include:

‹ diagnoses of the strengths and weaknesses of individual students

‹ diagnoses of class and group needs
‹ group students for instruction within or across classes
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‹ identify and select students with special services

‹ assign grades on report cards
‹ evaluate the effectiveness of their instructional efforts
‹ communicate instructional objectives or achievement expectations
‹ control student behaviour and motivation and enhance test-taking skills

Kellough et al (1999) characterises seven purposes of assessment. These are

to:

‹ assist student learning

‹ identify students’ strength and weaknesses
‹ assess the effectiveness of a particular instructional strategy
‹ assess and improve the effectiveness of curriculum programmes
‹ assess and improve teaching effectiveness
‹ provide data that assist in decision making
‹ communicate with and involve parents
The primary purpose of assessment is to support high quality teaching and
learning, hence the need for you the teacher to understand assessment
processes. Assessment provides evidence of performance relative to content
and performance standards. You are given insight into student’s errors and
misconceptions and this directly leads you to action. Without a clear
understanding of students, you, teachers have no definitive idea of now students
are meeting standards.

Activity 9.2
1. Critically discuss the rationale for testing, measurement, evaluation and
? assessment in the Zimbabwean schools.

9.5 Forms of Assessment

According to Wragg (2001), assessment has so many purposes that it is not
surprising that there are so many styles to go with them. No one form of
assessment can suit all conceivable purposes and reactions. Assessment
includes formative and summative formal and informal, written and oral, criterion
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and norm referenced, continuous assessment, ipsative assessment, assessment

for learning and assessment of learning.

9.5.1 Formal versus informal assessment

Formal assessment is structured and according to Wragg (2001:7), “it includes
examinations practical tests under controlled conditions, presentations and
vivas”. Formal assessment aims solely at obtaining knowledge about the
student, is obtrusive but has no direct instructional function (Frith and Macintosh
1991). Formal assessments are set by the teacher, or by people who may
never have seen or worked with the children. When they are set, the teacher
and the children know the occasion is special in that the process of teaching is
abandoned for the time being. The children must rely on their own resources
and expect no help.

Informal assessment is that which is used continuously to collect data in the

course of daily teaching (Conner 1991). Informal assessment is often used
diagnostically in unobtrusive manner if the teacher is to obtain reliable insights
about student abilities and development. In carrying out informal assessment
once pupils are working on their assignments the teacher walks around
monitoring what they are doing.

9.5.2 Oral versus written assessments

If assessment is informal and immediate then it is often tackled as a natural
part of oral classroom discourse, a question and answer, a comment from the
teacher and explanation from a pupil with a teacher’s response. If a record is
required for future use by the pupil or teacher, then written work is useful.

9.5.3 Criterion versus norm referenced assessment

In criterion referenced assessment, criteria are listed in terms of what pupils
should know or be able to do in order to obtain the reward or to be given a
particular grade level (Wragg, 2003). No attempt is made to compare students
with one another. On the contrary norm referenced assessment is a way of
establishing a rank order of students in terms of their achievements. The
performance of students is assessed relative to others in the group such as
class or year.

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9.5.4 Ipsative assessment / self referenced assessment

It is a self-comparison either in the same domains over time or comparative to
other domains within the students. Rowntree (1967:178) highlights that it is
“how well the student has performed with their own previous efforts.” It is
important when students set their own learning objectives.

9.5.5 Continuous assessment

Continuous assessment can be defined as a mechanism where by the final
grading of learners in cognitive, psychomotor and an effective domain of
learning systematically takes account of all their performances during a given
period (Falayo, 1986). Another definition by Airasain (1991) describes
continuous assessment as an assessment approach which should depict a full
range of sources and methods used together, interpret and synthesise information
about learners that is used to help teachers understand their learners, plan and
monitor instruction and establish viable classroom culture. In other words,
the continuous assessment marks, along with the end of year examination,
contribute to the final grade (McTighe and Ferrara, 1984). Continuous
assessment is a process by which work done during a course is assessed as
part of the learner’s summative assessment.

9.5.6 Assessment of learning versus assessment for

learning, and assessment as learning
These are new models of assessment and evaluation that are emerging in
many Western countries such as Canada, United States and England. Instead
of recognising the more familiar categories of formative diagnostic,
summative and evaluative assessment, this new, categorization does not
replace the familiar descriptions or the functions of assessment; rather they
are subsumed into the new categorization, (NCCA2003: 23). This descriptive
of the functions of assessment arise from the view that of learning that position,
the child as an active agent in constructing his own learning in the context of
social interaction with peers, the teacher and the community NCCA 2004:23).
They continue, central to this view of learning is the role of the teacher in
providing a range of support designed to maximise both the extent and the
rate of learning.

Assessment of learning

Assessment of learning looks at a student level of performance on a specific

task or at the end of a unit of teaching and learning (curriculum support for
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primary teachers, 2007). The information obtained from this kind of assessment
can be used for reporting to a variety of recipients, including parents, other
teachers, other schools and other professionals associated with the education
of the child. Information gained from this type of assessment can only help in
evaluating certain aspects of the learning process; summative assessment takes
place to far down the learning path to provide information at classroom level
and to make instruction judgment and interaction during the learning process
(Angelo and Cross 1993).

Assessment for learning

Assessment for learning is concerned with applying the information gained

from the different modes of assessment to the learning/ teaching process.
NCCA (2004:2) posits, “Through assessment for learning the teacher will
gather extensive and continuous information about a child’s progress and
attainment through observing his / her performance in and engagement with
the day to day learning activities in the classroom. Thus, in using assessment
for learning, the teacher keeps accounting for all the information about the
child’s progress attainment and possible areas of difficult in providing regular
and high quality feedback to the child and in the planning for future learning
experiences (NCCA 2004:24). Assessment for learning includes the function
of assessment known as formative assessment, but it is wider in scope
since it also includes diagnostic and evaluative assessment. Assessment should
not merely be done to students, rather it should be done for students, to guide
and enhance their learning.

Assessment as learning

It is a subject of assessment for learning and occurs when students personally

monitor what they are learning and use the feedback from this monitoring to
make adjustment, adaptive or even major changes in what they understand.

9.5.7 Formative versus summative assessment

Summative assessment is a test usually given at the end of the term, chapter,
semester, year, the purpose of which is evaluative (Swearing, 2002). Summative
assessment is intended to summarise student attainment at a particular time,
where as formative assessment is intended to promote further improvement
on student attainment.

Formative assessments are not graded and are used as an ongoing diagnostic
tool; hence the need for the teacher to solely modify his or her teaching
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practices to reflect the needs and progress of the students. According to the
National Center for Fair and Open testing (1999:4) “it occurs when teachers
feed information back to students in ways that enable the student to learn
better or when the student can engage in a similar, self reflective process.”

9.5.8 Diagnostic assessment

Although some authors delineate diagnostic assessment as a component of
formative assessment, most consider it as a distinct form of measurement
(Mcmillan: 2000). In practice the purpose of diagnostic assessment is to
ascertain prior to instruction, each students strengths, weaknesses, knowledge
and skills. Establishing these, permits you to remediate students and adjust
curriculum to meet each pupil’s unique needs.

From this backdrop, you as a teacher must recognise the different purposes
of assessment and then use them accordingly; you also need to understand
how assessment can drive instruction and positively impact student learning
and performance. It is also incumbent upon you as a teacher, to utilise
assessment in an effective manner keeping in mind the purposes and the
principles behind it.

Activity 9.3
1. What are the various forms of assessment?
? 2. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the different forms of
assessment.
3. In the education system of your choice, which form of assessment is
mostly used and why?
4. What is continuous assessment?
5. With relevant examples, justify the use of continuous assessment in the
secondary schools.
6. Differentiate formative assessment from summative assessment.
7. Compare and contrast criterion referenced assessment and norm
referenced assessment.

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9.6 Classroom Tests

These are tests constructed by the teacher and given to pupils to measure
their performance. There are basically two types of classroom tests, namely
objective tests and essay tests. Each of the tests is used appropriately and
appropriateness depends on learning out comes to be measured.

9.6.1 General strategies on test construction

There are a number of strategies to be considered in the construction of tests.
In this section, we discuss some of them.

‹ Spend adequate amount of time developing your test. That is, consider
the learning outcomes you want to measure, the type of test best suited
for the outcomes, the range of difficulty of items, the length and time
limits for the format and layout of the test and the scoring procedures.
‹ Match the test to the content you are teaching.
‹ Try to make your test valid and reliable. A test is valid if its results are
appropriate and useful for making decision about an aspect of student
achievements (Gronlund and Lin 1990). Validity refers to the
appropriateness of the interpretation of the results and not to the test
itself

9.6.2 Types of validity

There are a variety of the forms of validity. In this section, we discuss content,
predictive, construct, concurrent and face validity.
Content validity is the extent to which content of the test represent an adequate
sampling of knowledge and skills taught in the course. It is the extent to which
that information you collect actually reflects the attribute or characteristic you
want to measure.
Predictive validity is the extent to which assessment predicts the future,
especially in the form of selection for example, a scholastic aptitude test.
Construct validity is the degree to which a test measures an intended
hypothetical construct, for example, intelligence tests that measure a student‘s
IQ.
Concurrent validity is the degree to which the scores on a test are related to
the score of another already established test administrated at the same time or
to some other valid criterion available at the same time (Gay, 1979).
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Face validity addresses the question, “Does the test look as if it does the job
it is intended to do?”

Reliability is about consistency, however, unless assessment has validity there

is little point in even considering its reliability because it would have failed to
measure what it is supposed to measure (Wragg, 2001). A reliable assessment
is one that consistently achieves the same results with the same (or similar)
cohort of students. Various factors affect reliability including ambiguous
questions, too many options within a question paper, unclear directions, vague
making instructions and poorly trained markers.

There are several ways to estimate reliability of a test. The three basic methods
often used are called test retest, alternate forms and split half reliability. Reliability
estimates are calculated using correlation techniques, expressed as a decimal
number between .00 and 1.00.

Research shows that most tests administered rely too heavily on student’s
recall of information (Milton, Pollio and Eisan, 1986). Bloom (1956) argues
that it is important for tests to measure higher learning as well. Here is Bloom‘s
taxonomy for consideration for test development in the cognitive domain.

Knowledge

This category requires the student to remember. Test items ask the student to
recall or recognise the facts, terminology, and problem solving strategies or
rules. Some action verbs that describe the learning outcomes at the knowledge
level are: define, describe, identify list, match, name, outline recall, state,
recite, and select, state.

Comprehension

Behaviours in this category are those that show understanding. To measure

comprehension, ask these kinds of questions, convert, defend, generalise,
infer, predict, summarise and estimate.

Application

Application means being able to use or apply an abstract concept to specific

solutions. To measure application, ask those kinds of questions; demonstrate,
modify, relate, show, solve, use, produce, develop and so on.

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Analysis

Analysis requires the student to recognise unstated assumptions or logical

fallacies, ability to distinguish between facts and inferences. To measure analysis,
ask these kinds of questions deduce, diagram, differentiate, distinguish, illustrate,
infer, relate, and subdivide.

Synthesis

Synthesis asks you to integrate learning from different areas or solve problems
by creative thinking. Ask these kinds of questions categorise, combine,
compile, devise, design, explain, generate, organise, plan, rearrange, construct,
revise, tell.

Evaluation

Evaluation is the making of judgment about the value or worth of methods

ideas, people, or products that have a specific purpose. To measure evaluations
ask these questions: appraise, compare, contrast, conclude, criticise, defend,
justify, interpret, support, validate.

Besides the cognitive domains, teachers are required to also consider the
affective domain and which deals with the intangibles such as feeling, attitudes,
interests and values and the psychomotor domain that entails physical abilities,
those involving muscular or motor skills, manipulation of objects and
neuromuscular coordination.

Activity 9.4
1. Select an area of your interest and write test items related to each
? 2.
major category of the cognitive taxonomy
Illustrating your answer with relevant examples show how you would
establish types of validity in classroom tests.
3. Discuss any five principles involved in assembling and administering
classroom tests.
4. Discuss the concepts validity and reliability.
5. Critically examine any four factors that influence reliability of a test.

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9.6.2 Types of classroom tests

Classroom tests include objective tests and essay tests. Objective test items
include the following formats, true or false, matching, multiple choice,
completion or short answer terms.

Advantages of objective tests

Using objective tests has several advantages. Let us look at some of

them here:

‹ Sample a wide range of course contents

‹ Require less learner time than other tests
‹ Scoring is quick and objective. A stencil or a computer can be used for
scoring.
‹ Amenable to item analysis
‹ Versatile in measuring objectives from knowledge to the evaluation level
Disadvantages of objective tests
Objective tests also have some disadvantages. We list some of them
here:

‹ Setting the tests is time consuming

‹ Give room to guessing
‹ Not effective in testing students ability to organise their thoughts or
write coherently
‹ Tend to tests recall or factual information rather than creativity
Essay tests

An essay item is one which demands the student compose a response to a

question for which no single response or pattern of responses can be cited to
the exclusion of all answers (Kubiszyn and Borich, 1993). Unlike any other
objective tests, an essay test allows greater freedom of response to questions.

Advantages of essay tests

Using essay tests has several advantages. Let us look at some of them here:

‹ Measure higher cognitive skills such as analysis, synthesis, application

and evaluation.

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‹ Gives students freedom to respond within broad limits of good

handwriting skills, expression, organising
‹ Guessing is eliminated
‹ Essay tests reduce assembling time
‹ Essay test can measure divergent thinking
Disadvantages of essay tests

Essay tests are not without their own weaknesses. A few of these weaknesses
are given below:

‹ Difficult to score. Teachers can be influenced by handwriting, spellings

and grammatical mistakes. It is also tedious to read through pages of
student handwriting;
‹ Sampling is limited;
‹ Time consuming for the teacher and students. Students spend a lot of
time responding to the question and teachers take a lot of time marking;
‹ Highly subjective. Marking is prone to errors of central tendency and
severity.

9.7 Additional Measurement Techniques

Besides using tests, the teacher can use alternative assessment methods.
Observations provide supplementary information concerning such aspects of
learning and development such as for example, it is difficult to evaluate
behavioural changes in social development using paper – pencil – test.
Observations can take a relatively open ended form or a focused form with
predetermined responses categories such as observational checklists or rating
skills.

9.7.1 Anecdotal records

These records are sequential, usually brief reports that record a teacher’s
observation of student behaviour (Kubiszyn 1993).

Advantages of anecdotal records include the following:

‹ They provide a description of actual behaviours in natural situations.

‹ They provide a check on other evaluative methods.

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‹ They enable teacher to determine the extent of change in the pupils’

typical pattern of behaviours.
‹ They can be used on very young pupils and with others who are retarded
in basic communication skills.
‹ They can provide data about persons without being aware that they
are being observed.
Disadvantages of anecdotal records include the following:
‹ They are time consuming especially with big numbers of pupils.
‹ The records are subjective.
‹ It is difficult to obtain an adequate sample of behaviour.
‹ A large amount of time is required to maintain an adequate system of
records.

9.7.2 Checklists and rating scales

Checklists and rating scales are tools of recording observations (Genesee
and Upshur, 1996). They consist of a list of items that describe specific aspects
of learning and teaching. The basic difference between them is in the type of
judgment called for. A rating scale provides an opportunity to indicate the
degree to which a characteristic is present on the frequency with which the
behaviour occurs. The check list another hand calls for simple “Yes – no”
judgment, (Gronlund, 1971).

Advantages of rating scales are that they:

‹ direct observations forward specific and clearly defined aspects of

behaviour
‹ provide a common frame of reference for comparing all individuals on
the same set of characteristics
Disadvantages of rating scales include the following:
‹ They tend to rate all individuals at approximately the same position the
scale.
‹ Rater’s general impression of the person may influence how that person
is rated on individual characteristics.
‹ They allow for relative judgment, only that is, allows for relative
comparisons among individuals but not absolute judgment that a
particular behaviour was or was not attained.

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Advantages of the checklists include the following:

‹ They are useful in evaluating those performance skills that can be divided
into a series of clearly defined, specific actions
‹ They can provide absolute judgments of the presence or absence of
specific learning outcomes.
Disadvantages of the checklists include the following:
‹ They are not useful in recording general impressions of behaviours that
are customarily seen as continuous of attitude and achievement.
‹ They can provide inaccurate data when the opportunity to observe the
behaviour is not recorded at the time of scoring.

Activity 9.6

? 1.
2.
To what extent are anecdotal records applicable in the schools?
Why is it necessary to use observational techniques instead of paper-
and -pencil tests?
3. Identify the unique advantages the anecdotal record has over the
checklist and rating scale.
4. List the advantages and disadvantages of each of the following: rating
scale, checklist, anecdotal record.
5. Develop a checklist for evaluating any subject of your choice.

9.7 Summary
In this unit we have introduced you to the testing, measurement and evaluation
of pupils. These terms are often synonymously used although they are different
as exposed by their definitions. The major concepts we covered in this unit
are: testing, measurement, evaluation and assessment. Assessment is basically
used to select, certificate, describe, and aid learning and to improve teaching
or learning. The different forms of assessment include formal versus informal,
oral versus written, criterion versus norm referenced, continuous assessment
ipsative assessment, assessment of, as, for learning, summative versus formative
assessment and diagnostic assessment. We said, besides paper and pencil
tests that are mainly used to measure the cognitive domain, teachers can use
alternative methods of assessment such as observations. Observations include
anecdotal records, checklists and rating scales. Observations provide
evaluations of some aspects of learning that are difficult measure using paper-
and- pencil tests.

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