CHAPTER 3

FORENSIC SCIENCE: An Introduction

FORENSIC SCIENCE-deals with the application of scientific facts to legal problems and
the judicial process. Forensic means the analysis of information suitable for use in
court of law; it comes from the Latin word “forensis” which means forum, in open
court or public.

- It is the use of scientific methods or expertise to investigate crimes or examine

evidence that might be presented in a court of law.

- Forensic scientists examine and analyze evidence from crime scene and elsewhere
to develop objective finding that can assist in the investigation and prosecution of
perpetrators of crime or absolve an innocent person from suspicion.

- in Criminology, the forensic science can be defined as the application of scientific

methods to criminal cases. In particular, forensic science deals with the analysis of
evidence in criminal cases.

HENRY C LEE- is considered as the greatest forensic scientist in the world. His vast
investigative experience (more than six thousand cases) and participation in many
high-profile trials have earned him not only the highest respect from the law
enforcement community but also widespread public recognition.

EDMOND LOCARD (13 December 1877-4 May 1966) was French criminologist, the
pioneer in forensic science who became known as the “Sherlock Holmes of France”
He formulated the basic principles of forensic science. “Every contact leaves a trace”.
This became known as Locard’s exchange principle.

Three (3) tasks or responsibilities of a forensic scientist are:

1. Collecting evidence
2. Analyzing evidence
3. Communicating with law enforcement and testifying at trials.

Every aspects of forensic science involves the following:

1. The careful and proper collection, documentation and evaluation of evidence;
2. The chain of custody or the written documentation of all the stages of transfer
of evidence from the crime scene to the laboratory and the court;
3. The admissibility of test, evidence and testimony, based on legal standards;
and
4. The opinion of an expert witness regarding issues that relate to the specific
forensic science fields such as forensic ballistics, questioned document examination,
fingerprint examination, Polygraphy and legal medicine.
Why is forensics important in crime?

Forensics helps law enforcement by providing a precise and objective analysis of

evidence at crime scene. It assists in identifying suspects, verifying timelines, and
understanding circumstances of a crime.

What is the definition of Legal Medicine in criminology?

Legal Medicine is that branch of medicine which deals with the application of
medical knowledge to the purposes of law and in the administration of Justice.

Forensic Medicine- in criminal investigation mainly deals with examination and

assessment of individuals who have suspected to have been injured or killed by
external influence such as trauma or intoxication, but also of individuals who are
suspected of having injured another person.

Forensic pathology involves the investigation of unnatural, unexpected, or violent

death, whereas clinical forensic medicine involves an interaction between the living
person, medicine, and legal processes. In broad terms, the forensic pathologist deals
with the deceased while the forensic physician deals with living individuals.
However, the clinical and pathological aspects of forensic medicine tend to overlap,
and different countries have medical doctors who are involved in both the clinical
and the pathological aspects of legal medicine.

Each practitioner should be aware of their respective responsibilities, not only to

their patient or the deceased, but to the society as whole; they should also be able
to utilize their medical expertise in the pursuit of fairness and justice within the
framework of legal requirements and ethical values.

Forensic Pathology

The word 'pathology' literally means "the study of disease." A pathologist is a

physician who determines a patient's diagnosis from an examination of a tissue
sample or cells under the microscope.

Forensic pathology is a subspecialty that investigates non-natural or suspicious

deaths, often referred to as reportable deaths. Forensic pathology focuses on
determining the cause of death via post mortem examinations or autopsies.

The forensic pathologist undertakes the death certification or the completion of an

official death certificate, which includes some personal information of the deceased,
as well as the cause of death (the disease or injury that was responsible for death)
and the manner of death (the means or circumstances by which the cause of death
occurred). They are also often required to provide official testimony in court
regarding the deaths they have investigated.
Forensic pathologists are concerned with the reason behind the occurrence of death;
thus, they must investigate the context of surrounding events before and after the
death of the deceased, especially in homicidal, accidental, and suicidal cases. Their
investigation can begin with the determination of the following (Wecht, 1997):
1. Who is the victim? (identification based on sex, race, age, and distinguishing
characteristics)
2. When did the death and related injuries occur?
3. Where did the death and related injuries occur?
4. What injuries are present? (identification based on type, distribution, pattern,
path, and direction)

Clinical forensic medicine involves the examination of living persons and with the
assessment of medical findings in the context of the administration of justice. The
main fields of clinical forensic work comprise the examination of victims and
suspected perpetrators in cases of criminal assault, rape, child abuse, and domestic
violence.
Over the years, practitioners of clinical forensic medicine have been called police
surgeons, forensic medical officers or forensic medical examiners. Nowadays, they
are more widely known as forensic physicians.
The forensic physician is tasked to undertake a variety of functions. The following
illustrates the variety of functions a forensic physician may be asked to undertake:
Typical Roles of a Forensic Physician
 Determination of fitness to be detained in custody.
 Determination of fitness to be released
 Determination of fitness to be charged: competent enough to understand the
charge/s
 Determination of fitness to transfer from one jail facility to another or to the
court where the alleged case is being heard and tried
 Determination of fitness to be interviewed by the police or another detaining
body
 Advise that an independent person is required to ensure rights for the
vulnerable or mentally disordered
 Assessment of alcohol and drug intoxication and withdrawal
 Comprehensive examination to assess a person's ability to drive a motor vehicle,
in general medical terms and related to alcohol and drug misuse.
 Undertake intimate body searches for drugs
 Documentation and interpretation of injuries
 Take forensic samples
  Assess and treat personnel who are injured while on duty (e.g., police
personnel), including needle-stick injuries
 Pronounce life as extinct at a scene of death and undertake preliminary advisory
roll
 Undertake mental state examination
 Examinee adult complainants of serious sexual assault and the alleged
perpetrators
 Examine alleged child victims of neglect or physical sexual abuse
 Examine victims and assailants in alleged police assaults
Additional Roles of a Forensic Physician
 Provide expert opinion in courts and tribunals
 Certify death in custody investigation
 Serve as part of pressure group and independent investigators in ethical and
moral issues (victims of torture, war crimes, female genital mutilation)
 Administer medicine to refugees (medical and forensic issues)
 Administer medicine to asylum-seekers (medical and forensic issues)
 Implement principles of immediate management in biological or chemical
incidents

Forensic Toxicology

Forensic toxicology is a forensic science discipline that deals with the identification
and quantification drugs, poisons, and other toxic substances in body tissues and
fluids. Victims who are suspected to have been accidentally or purposely poisoned
are examined by the toxicologist to detect toxic substances in the blood, urine,
spinal fluid, gastric contents, bile, and tissues (Brenner, 2000).

Forensic Anthropology

The scientific field of physical anthropology is concerned with the study of humans
in relation to their physical characteristics. The subspecialty of forensic
anthropology is concerned with the examination of bones and skeletal remains in
order to provide information about sex, race, age, and time of death. Forensic
anthropologists can differentiate between post-mortem changes to help in
identifying mysterious remains and to determine whether the death was caused by
foul play.