INTRODUCTION TO CNC MACHINE TOOLS

Evolution and Principles of CNC Technology

Computer Numerical Control (CNC) is an automated manufacturing technology where computers
control machine tools. Unlike manual machines, which rely on a human operator, CNC machines use
computer programs to precisely control tools like drills, lathes, and mills.

Evolution from NC to CNC

The fundamental difference between NC (Numerical Control) and CNC (Computer Numerical
Control) is the use of an integrated computer in CNC. This computer-based control gives CNC machines
superior flexibility, accuracy, and functionality.

Feature NC (Numerical Control) Machine CNC (Computer Numerical Control) Machine

Software-based. A dedicated computer

Control Unit Hardware-based. Fixed-wired logic.
(microprocessor).

Program On external media, like punched tape. Internal memory. Programs can be stored, edited,
Storage Cannot be edited on the machine. and retrieved easily.

Low. Requires physical change of tape for

Flexibility High. Programs are easily changed and modified.
a new job.

Open-loop. No feedback, leading to lower Closed-loop. Uses feedback (encoders) for real-time
Operation
accuracy. error correction, providing high accuracy.

Not possible. Machines operate Can be networked (DNC) for centralized control and
Networking
independently. program transfer.
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Core Principles
CNC machines operate on the principle of programmed instructions. A computer program, often
generated from a Computer-Aided Design (CAD) model, contains a series of commands (G-code and
M-code) that define the tool's path, speed, and other operational parameters.

Features and Advantages

Key Features
High accuracy and precision

Repeatability in production
Versatility in operations

Automated operation
Complex geometry capability
Main Advantages
Increased productivity
Reduced human error

Lower material waste

Ability to produce complex geometries that would be difficult or impossible with manual methods

Consistent quality in mass production

Reduced setup time for repeat jobs

Applications of CNC Machines

CNC machines are used across various industries due to their precision and automation capabilities:

Aerospace: Manufacturing turbine blades, structural components, and landing gear with high-
precision

Automotive: Producing engine blocks, molds for plastic parts, and transmission components

Medical & Dental: Creating surgical implants, prosthetics, and dental crowns with biocompatible
materials

Prototyping: Rapidly creating physical models from 3D designs for testing and validation

Electronics: Machining enclosures, heat sinks, and circuit boards

Woodworking: Producing custom furniture, cabinets, and intricate carvings using CNC routers

Mold & Die Making: Fabricating the complex shapes required for injection molding and casting

CNC and DNC Concept

CNC (Computer Numerical Control)

Refers to a system where each machine has its own dedicated computer controller. The computer is
integrated directly into the machine tool.

DNC (Direct Numerical Control)

A network system where a central computer controls multiple CNC machines, allowing for:

Centralized program management

Data transfer between machines

Remote monitoring and control

Improved coordination in manufacturing systems
Classification of CNC Machines

1. Turning Centre
Primary Function: Creating cylindrical parts
Operation: Rotates the workpiece while a cutting tool moves along its axis

Applications: Shafts, pins, bushings, and other rotational components

2. Machining Centre
Primary Function: Multi-operation versatility

Capabilities: Milling, drilling, boring, tapping

Features: Automatic tool changer, multiple axes operation

Types: Vertical and horizontal machining centers

3. Grinding Machine
Primary Function: High-precision finishing operations
Operation: Uses a spinning abrasive wheel to remove material

Applications: Surface finishing, precision dimensioning

4. EDM (Electrical Discharge Machining)

Primary Function: Non-traditional machining

Operation: Uses electrical sparks to erode material

Applications: Hard materials, complex internal geometries

Advantages: Can machine very hard materials that are difficult to machine conventionally

Types of Control Systems

Open Loop Control System

An open-loop control system operates without feedback. It executes a command based on a pre-
programmed sequence, assuming the desired output is achieved without verification.

Working Principle: A command signal is sent to the drive unit, which moves the machine. The system
doesn't measure the actual position or speed.

Example: A stepper motor moving a slide a specific number of steps.

Limitations:

Not self-correcting

Sensitive to disturbances
 Lower accuracy
No real-time error correction

Closed Loop Control System

A closed-loop control system uses feedback to continuously monitor and adjust the output. It
compares the actual output with the desired input and corrects any error.

Working Principle: A sensor (e.g., an encoder) measures the machine's actual position. This feedback
signal is sent to the controller, which compares it to the command and adjusts the drive signal to
eliminate any error.

Example: A servo motor system with a linear encoder that provides real-time position data to the
controller.

Advantages:

High accuracy and repeatability

Less affected by external disturbances

Self-correcting capability
Real-time error compensation

CNC Controllers and Characteristics

Types Based on Motion Control Capability

1. Point-to-Point (PTP) Control

Function: Controller moves tool to specific target points

Characteristics: Path between points is not controlled, no machining during movement

Applications: Drilling, boring, punching operations

Advantages: Simple and cost-effective

2. Straight-Cut Control

Function: Can machine along straight lines

Capabilities: Simultaneous movement of two or more axes, linear interpolation

Applications: Milling rectangular pockets, turning steps on shafts

Features: Constant feed rate along straight paths

3. Continuous-Path (Contouring) Control

Function: Most sophisticated control type

Capabilities: Complex curves and contours, multiple axis coordination

 Features: Advanced mathematical interpolators
Applications: 3D shapes, molds, dies, aerospace components

Interpolation Types: Circular, helical, parabolic interpolation

Interpolators
Interpolators are crucial components of the CNC controller. They mathematically calculate the
intermediate points between two specified points to ensure the tool follows a smooth and precise path.
This capability allows for the creation of complex curves and contours with high precision.

Computer Aided Inspection

Computer Aided Inspection involves the use of computer-controlled measuring systems to verify the
dimensional accuracy and quality of machined parts. This integration ensures that CNC machined parts
meet the required specifications and tolerances.

CNC Machine Building and Structural Details

Configuration and Design

The physical structure of a CNC machine is designed for rigidity and precision. Key design considerations
include:

Structural Requirements:

Maximum rigidity to minimize vibrations

Excellent damping properties

Thermal stability
Precision in geometric accuracy

Materials Used:

Cast iron for main structures (excellent damping)

Polymer concrete for enhanced vibration absorption

Steel for high-strength applications

Guide Ways
Guideways, or slideways, provide the path for a CNC machine's moving components. They ensure
accurate and repeatable linear motion.

Requirements of a Good Slide Way System

A good slideway system is essential for a CNC machine's accuracy and performance. Key requirements
include:
 Low Friction: Essential for smooth, stick-slip-free motion, especially at low feed rates, and for
reducing heat generation

High Accuracy: Must provide a highly precise and straight path for motion to avoid dimensional
errors in the workpiece

High Stiffness: Must resist deflection under cutting forces to maintain tool position and prevent
chatter

Good Damping: The system should absorb vibrations from the cutting process to improve surface
finish and extend tool life
Wear Resistance: Surfaces must be hard and durable to maintain long-term accuracy with minimal
wear

Easy Maintenance: The system should be easy to lubricate and maintain to ensure a long service life

Types of Guide Ways

1. Friction Guide Ways

These rely on direct sliding contact between mating surfaces, typically cast iron. They are known for high
damping but also high friction.

Sub-types:

Flat: Simple design with large bearing area

V-shaped: Provides alignment and prevents lateral movement

Dovetail: Offers strong locking action against upward forces

Characteristics:

Inexpensive to manufacture

High damping properties

Subject to friction-related wear

Can suffer from "stick-slip" motion at low speeds

2. Anti-Friction Guide Ways

These use rolling elements (balls or rollers) to reduce friction. They allow for higher speeds and precision.

Types:

Recirculating Ball Bearings: Most common type, using balls that recirculate within a carriage on a
rail
Linear Roller Bearings: Use rollers for higher load capacity and stiffness

Hydrostatic: Uses pressurized fluid film to eliminate contact, providing zero friction and high
stiffness
 Aerostatic: Similar to hydrostatic but uses compressed air for ultra-high precision

Advantages:

Very low friction

High accuracy and repeatability

Smooth motion at all speeds

Long service life

Minimal maintenance requirements

Drive Systems: Ball Screw Technology

Principle of Recirculating Ball Screw

A recirculating ball screw converts rotational motion into linear motion with minimal friction. It uses steel
balls that roll within helical grooves on both a screw shaft and a nut.

Operation Principle:

1. Rolling Motion: As the screw rotates, the balls move along the helical raceway, providing low-
friction rolling action instead of high-friction sliding motion
2. Recirculation: Balls continuously recirculate through a return channel inside the nut, exiting at one
end of the load-bearing race and re-entering at the other, allowing unlimited linear travel

3. Preloading: Many ball screws are preloaded to eliminate backlash (play between screw and nut),
crucial for high-precision positioning

Comparison: Conventional Screw vs Ball Screw

Characteristic Conventional Screw (Lead Screw) Ball Screw

Load
Limited by friction and wear at high speeds High load-carrying capacity due to rolling contact
Capacity

Low speeds due to friction and heat

Travel Speed High travel speeds possible with minimal heat
generation

Very high accuracy and repeatability due to

Positioning Lower accuracy due to backlash and wear
preloading

High stiffness, can be preloaded to eliminate

Stiffness Low, difficult to preload without high friction
backlash

Friction Very high (sliding contact) Very low (rolling contact)

Efficiency Low (20-50%), significant energy loss as heat Very high (90-95%), requires less power to drive

Maintenance Requires frequent lubrication, prone to wear Requires less lubrication, longer service life
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CNC PROGRAMMING AND CODES

Introduction to CNC Programming

CNC (Computer Numerical Control) programming is the language used to tell a machine tool how to
create a part. At its core, it involves defining a path for a cutting tool to follow to shape a piece of raw
material. Think of it like a recipe for a machine, where the ingredients are the G & M codes and the
instructions are the program structure.

Coordinate Systems in CNC Programming

The first step in programming is establishing a coordinate system. CNC machines use a Cartesian
coordinate system (X, Y, Z) to define the tool's position.

Basic Axis Designation

For Machining Centers:

X-axis: The horizontal movement (left-to-right)

Y-axis: The horizontal movement perpendicular to the X-axis (front-to-back)

Z-axis: The vertical movement, often the spindle's travel direction

Axis Designation for CNC Turning Center

The axis designation for CNC machine tools follows a standardized right-hand rule to ensure consistency
and prevent errors. For a CNC turning center, the main axes are X-axis and Z-axis. The system is defined
with respect to the workpiece, not the tool.

Z-axis: This is the primary axis of rotation for the workpiece spindle. The Z-axis is parallel to the spindle's
centerline.

Positive (+Z) motion is away from the spindle (towards the tailstock)

Negative (-Z) motion is towards the spindle (into the workpiece)

X-axis: This is the primary axis of motion for the cross-slide, which controls the cutting diameter. It is
perpendicular to the Z-axis.

Positive (+X) motion increases the diameter (moves the tool away from the centerline)
Negative (-X) motion decreases the diameter (moves the tool towards the centerline)

The right-hand rule is applied by aligning the thumb of the right hand with the Z-axis in the positive
direction. The index finger then points in the positive X-direction. For a lathe, the thumb points away from
the spindle, and the index finger points up, away from the centerline.

Work Coordinate System and Machine Coordinate System

Machine Coordinate System (MCS): This is a permanent, fixed reference system defined by the machine
builder. Its origin is usually a fixed point on the machine, like the corner of the table or the spindle at its
highest position.

Work Coordinate System (WCS): This is a user-defined reference system that can be set anywhere on
the workpiece. The programmer defines this origin (e.g., at the corner or center of the part) using
commands like G54. All G90 coordinates are relative to this origin, which makes programming easier.

A work coordinate system (WCS) sets the origin point (0,0,0) on the part itself, which simplifies
programming. This origin is typically a corner or the center of the workpiece.

Programming Modes

Absolute Programming (G90): All coordinates are defined relative to a single fixed origin point (the
workpiece zero). This is the standard and most reliable method. For example, to move from X10 Y10 to
X20 Y30, the programmer simply commands G90 X20. Y30.

Incremental Programming (G91): All coordinates are defined relative to the current tool position. This
means the new position is specified as the distance from the last commanded position. For example, to
move from X10 Y10 to X20 Y30, the command would be G91 X10. Y20.

Structure of a Part Program

A CNC program is a sequence of blocks, or lines, of code. Each block contains instructions for the
machine. A typical program structure includes:

Program Number: O1234

Safety Line: Initial commands to set a safe state, like turning off any active tool compensation

Tool Information: T01 M06 (Select tool #1, change tool)

Spindle & Feed Information: S1500 M03 (Spindle speed 1500 RPM, clockwise). G01 X10 Y20 F200
(Move to X10 Y20 at a feed rate of 200 mm/min)

Machining Commands: The main body of the program with G & M codes
Program End: M30 (End of program, reset)

G-codes and M-codes

Difference between G-codes and M-codes

The core difference is that G-codes control tool motion, while M-codes control machine functions.
 Feature G-codes (Geometric Codes) M-codes (Miscellaneous Codes)

Defines tool path and motion, such as linear Controls auxiliary machine functions that aren't
Function and circular interpolation, rapid movements, related to tool movement, like spindle control,
and canned cycles. coolant on/off, and program stop/end.

"Preparatory" commands that set up the "Miscellaneous" or "auxiliary" commands that

Category
conditions for a movement. control machine operations.

Modal. A G-code remains active until it's Non-modal. M-codes are active only on the line
replaced by a different code from the same where they are commanded and must be

Modality group. For example, G01 (linear feed) stays repeated for each execution. For example, to turn

active until a new G command like G00 the coolant on and off, you need M08 and then
(rapid) is called. M09 .

G00 (Rapid Traverse), G01 (Linear Feed),

M03 (Spindle ON), M06 (Tool Change), M08
Examples G02 (Circular Interpolation CW), G81
(Coolant ON), M30 (Program End and Reset)
(Drilling Cycle)

Programming Tells the machine how and where to move. Tells the machine what to do.
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Common G-codes

G-codes (Geometric codes) define the tool's motion, such as rapid moves, linear interpolation, or
circular interpolation.

G00 (Rapid Traverse): This is a non-cutting motion command. It instructs the machine to move the
tool at its maximum rapid traverse speed to a new position. It is used for moving the tool to a safe
position, to the start of a cut, or away from the workpiece.

G01 (Linear Interpolation): Straight-line cutting move at a specified feed rate.

G02 (Circular Interpolation Clockwise): Moves the tool along a circular arc in a clockwise direction.
G03 (Circular Interpolation Counter-Clockwise): This command moves the tool along a circular arc
in a counter-clockwise direction. The programmer must specify the end point of the arc (X, Y, Z
coordinates) and the location of the arc center (using I, J, K parameters relative to the start point).

G77 (Turning Cycle): This code is specific to some older or different CNC controllers and often refers
to a generic rough turning or facing cycle. It is less common in modern controllers where G71 (OD/ID
Roughing) or G72 (Facing) are the standard codes for these operations.

G90 (Absolute Positioning Mode): All positions are referenced from the WCS origin (0,0,0).
G91 (Incremental Positioning Mode): Each move is a relative distance from the previous position.

Common M-codes

M-codes (Miscellaneous codes) control machine functions that are not related to motion.
 M03 (Spindle ON - Clockwise): This command turns the spindle ON in a clockwise direction. The
spindle speed is usually specified with an S-word (e.g., M03 S1500 starts the spindle at 1500 RPM).

M04 (Spindle ON - Counter-Clockwise): Turns the spindle ON in a counter-clockwise direction.

M06 (Tool Change): This is a miscellaneous function that initiates an automatic tool change. When
the CNC machine reads this code, it will stop the spindle, retract the tool, and automatically load the
next tool from the tool magazine.
M08 (Coolant ON): This code commands the coolant system to turn ON. It is used to lubricate the
cutting area and dissipate heat generated during machining, which extends tool life and improves
surface finish.

M09 (Coolant OFF): Turns the coolant system OFF.

M30 (End of Program): Program end and reset.

Canned Cycles

Definition and Purpose

A canned cycle is a pre-programmed sequence of machine movements and operations stored in the CNC
controller's memory. It simplifies programming by allowing a complex series of steps—such as drilling,
tapping, or turning—to be executed with a single G-code line. This significantly reduces the length and
complexity of a part program, minimizing the chance of programming errors. The programmer only
needs to specify the parameters for the operation, such as the final depth, feed rate, and retract plane,
rather than writing a line-by-line program for each step of the cycle.

Example: Drilling Cycle (G81)

A simple G81 drilling cycle for a vertical milling machine is a common example. Instead of writing
separate commands for rapid traverse to a safe height, feeding down to the specified depth, and rapid
retracting, a single line of code handles it all.

G99 G81 X50. Y30. Z-15. R5. F100.

G99: Retract to the R-plane (a safe, rapid-retract plane)

G81: The command to initiate a drilling canned cycle

X50. Y30.: The X and Y coordinates of the hole

Z-15.: The final depth of the hole relative to the R-plane

R5.: The R-plane (Retract plane) is 5 mm above the workpiece zero. The drill rapids to this point
before feeding
F100.: The feed rate of 100 mm/min

Commonly Used Canned Cycles for Turning Centers

Canned cycles are pre-defined subroutines in CNC programming that simplify and automate repetitive
machining sequences. Instead of manually programming each individual motion (rapid traverse, feed,
dwell, and retract), a single G-code command can call a canned cycle, which contains all the necessary
steps. This makes programming faster, more efficient, and less prone to errors.

G70: Finishing Cycle: Used after a roughing cycle (like G71 or G72) to execute the final finishing pass
along a programmed profile.
G71: OD/ID Roughing Cycle: This is a powerful cycle used for roughing complex external or internal
profiles. It removes material in multiple passes, following a user-defined path.
G72: Facing Roughing Cycle: Used to rough a part's face, removing material in successive passes
along the Z-axis.
G73: Pattern Repeating Cycle: This cycle is for roughing an uneven or pre-cast component,
following a specific pattern.

G74: Peck Drilling Cycle: Used for deep hole drilling. The tool pecks (feeds down, retracts to clear
chips, and then feeds back to the previous depth) to prevent chip clogging and overheating.

G75: Grooving Cycle: Automates the process of cutting a groove of a specific width and depth.
G76: Threading Cycle: This is a complex cycle used for cutting external or internal threads. It
automatically calculates the multiple passes and depths required to form a thread.

Tool Compensations
Tool compensations are essential functions in CNC programming that allow for greater flexibility and
accuracy by accounting for the physical dimensions of the cutting tool. They enable the programmer to
write a program based on the final part geometry rather than the tool center path.

1. Tool Length Compensation (TLO)

Tool length compensation is used to account for the difference in length between various tools used in a
program. In a milling machine, all tools are mounted in the spindle at different lengths. Without
compensation, the Z-axis would need to be re-zeroed for every tool change, which is impractical. TLO
allows the programmer to set a single Z-axis zero point for the workpiece and then apply an offset for
each tool to make up for its unique length.

How it works:

The length of each tool is measured and stored in the machine's tool offset register
The programmer uses the G43 command (for a positive offset) in the program. For example, G43 H01
Z100. F200., where H01 calls the tool length offset value from register 01

The machine automatically adjusts the Z-axis position based on the stored offset value, ensuring the
tool tip is at the correct Z-depth regardless of the tool's physical length

2. Cutter Radius Compensation (CRC)

Cutter radius compensation is used to adjust the tool path to account for the tool's radius. It allows the
programmer to define the path of the part's contour (the "part geometry") and have the CNC controller
automatically calculate the tool's centerline path. This is crucial for achieving dimensional accuracy,
especially when using tools of different diameters or when the tool wears down.

How it works:

The programmer defines the part's profile

The tool radius is measured and stored in the tool offset register
The programmer uses G-codes to command compensation:
G41: Cutter radius compensation to the left of the programmed path (for climb milling)

G42: Cutter radius compensation to the right of the programmed path (for conventional milling)

G40: Cancels cutter radius compensation

The CNC controller automatically shifts the tool path by the tool's radius value, ensuring the
programmed profile is accurately cut. This feature also allows for easy adjustment for tool wear; a
simple change to the offset value is all that's needed.

Part Programming Formats

The format of a CNC program block is a crucial aspect of manual part programming. A program is a
sequence of blocks, and each block contains a specific set of instructions. Two common formats are Word
Address Format and Tab Sequential Format.

1. Word Address Format

This is the most widely used and modern format for CNC programming. Each command within a block is
preceded by a letter called an "address." The addresses tell the CNC controller what kind of information
follows. The sequence of words within a block is not fixed, allowing for flexibility.

Format: N_ G_ X_ Y_ Z_ F_ S_ T_ M_

N (Sequence Number): Identifies the block number

G (Preparatory Function): Commands tool motion or other geometric functions

X, Y, Z (Axes): Specify the coordinates for the tool's destination
F (Feed Rate): Defines the cutting feed rate

S (Spindle Speed): Sets the spindle speed

T (Tool Number): Selects the tool

M (Miscellaneous Function): Controls auxiliary functions

Example: N10 G01 X20. Y30. F100.

The addresses clearly define that N10 is the block number, G01 is a linear motion command, X20. and
Y30. are the coordinates, and F100. is the feed rate. This format is intuitive and easy to read and debug.

2. Tab Sequential Format

This is an older format that was common in early CNC machines. The order of the commands is fixed, and
the address letters are omitted. The controller reads the data based on its position within the block, with a
tab or a space separating each data word.

Format: (Tab) (Tab) (Tab) (Tab)

The first word might be the sequence number, the second the G-code, and so on. This format is very rigid
and makes programming difficult because any omitted word requires a placeholder (like a space or a tab)
to maintain the correct sequence. It is largely obsolete today.

Example: 10 01 20. 30. 100.

In this format, the programmer must remember that the first number is the block number, the second is
the G-code, etc. Any mistake in the sequence would lead to an error. For instance, if the feed rate is
missing, a placeholder must be used to ensure the following data is interpreted correctly.

CNC Programming Example (Turning) (Q.3 (c) - Winter 2024)

Manual Part Programming for Finishing Component

Note: Without the actual Fig (A), this program is an example for a generic turning profile with a step and a
taper. The program assumes a starting diameter of 30mm and a length of 50mm, with the finished part
having a 20mm diameter step and a tapered section. A final diameter of 15mm is assumed.

Part Program for Finishing a Component (Generic Profile)

O1234 (FINISHING PROGRAM)

N10 G21 G99 G40 (Metric units, Feed per revolution, Cancel compensation)
N20 T0101 (Select tool 1, offset 1)
N30 G97 S600 M03 (Constant surface speed off, spindle speed 600 RPM, spindle ON CW)
N40 G00 X32. Z2. M08 (Rapid to a safe position, coolant ON)
N50 G01 Z0. F0.2 (Feed to the face of the part)
N60 G01 X15. F0.2 (Feed to the final diameter of the taper)
N70 G01 X20. Z-20. (Linear interpolation to the end of the taper)
N80 G01 X20. Z-40. (Feed along the straight section)
N90 G01 X32. Z-40. (Move tool away from the part)
N100 G00 X100. Z100. M09 (Rapid to home position, coolant OFF)
N110 M30 (End of program)

Program Explanation:
 N10: Initializes the program with metric units (G21), feed per revolution mode (G99), and cancels any
existing compensations

N20: Selects tool number 1 and its corresponding offset number 1

N30: Sets the spindle speed to 600 RPM (S600) and turns it ON clockwise (M03). G97 (Constant
Surface Speed OFF) is used here as the problem specifies a constant RPM
N40: The tool rapids (G00) to a safe starting position 32mm in diameter (2mm away from the part)
and 2mm from the face of the part, and turns on the coolant (M08)

N50-N80: These lines define the finishing cut. The tool feeds (G01) at 0.2 mm/rev. It first faces the
part (Z0.), then turns the taper from 32mm to 20mm (X20. Z-20.), and finally turns the straight section
(Z-40.)

N90: The tool moves rapidly away from the part's final diameter
N100: The tool rapids to a safe home position and the coolant is turned off (M09)

N110: The program ends and resets (M30)

Advanced Programming Features

Compensation & Automation

These features are crucial for automating and simplifying programming, reducing manual calculations
and the risk of errors.

Tool Length Compensation (G43): Adjusts the Z-axis height for different tool lengths. Instead of
manually calculating the Z position for each tool, you program to the part's surface and the controller
automatically compensates.
Cutter Radius / Tool Nose Radius Compensation (G41 / G42): Compensates for the tool's cutting
diameter or radius. This allows you to program the actual part geometry, and the machine
automatically offsets the tool's path to the left (G41) or right (G42) of the programmed path.

Subroutines & Loops

Subroutines (M98 / M99): Allow you to run a block of code multiple times without rewriting it.
Subroutines are called to perform a specific task (e.g., cutting a pocket) and then the main program
continues.

Do Loops: Repeat a section of code a specified number of times.

Parametric Programming

Uses variables (#1, #2, etc.) in the program instead of fixed numerical values. This is essential for creating
programs that can be easily modified for different part sizes or features without rewriting the entire
program.
Machine Types and Programming Differences

Machining Centers vs Turning Centers

Machining Center: Typically a milling machine with multiple axes (3, 4, 5+ axes). It can perform
operations like drilling, milling, and boring on complex, prismatic parts.

Turning Center: A lathe used for turning, boring, facing, and threading cylindrical parts. The part rotates
while a stationary tool is fed into it.

The programming concepts are similar, but the specific codes and axis movements differ. For example, a
milling center uses X, Y, Z for linear movement, while a turning center uses X (diameter) and Z (length).

Controllers & CAM

Controllers

The "brain" of the CNC machine, such as Fanuc, Sinumerik (Siemens), and Heidenhain. They all use G & M
codes, but there are slight differences in syntax and available features. For example, Heidenhain uses
conversational programming, which is more like a guided dialog, while Fanuc uses the traditional G-code
format.

CAM (Computer-Aided Manufacturing)

Software that automates the generation of CNC code from a 3D CAD model. You define the tools,
material, and machining strategies, and the CAM software automatically calculates the tool paths and
outputs the G-code. This is the industry standard for complex parts, as it eliminates the need for manual,
line-by-line programming.

METROLOGY AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Introduction to Metrology
Metrology, the science of measurement, is fundamental to manufacturing and quality control. This
chapter focuses on the tools and concepts used for measuring an object's size (linear) and orientation
(angular).

Fundamental Concepts of Metrology

Accuracy vs Precision (Q.4 (a) - Winter 2021, Summer 2025)

Accuracy and precision are two fundamental concepts in metrology that describe the quality of a
measurement, but they refer to different aspects.

Accuracy is the closeness of a measurement to the true or accepted value of a quantity. A

measurement is accurate if it has a small systematic error.
 Precision is the degree to which repeated measurements under unchanged conditions show the
same results. A measurement is precise if it has a small random error.

An easy way to remember the difference is with a target analogy:

Accurate means hitting the bullseye.

Precise means hitting the same spot repeatedly, even if that spot isn't the bullseye.

Feature Accuracy Precision

Closeness of a measurement to the true

Definition Closeness of repeated measurements to each other.
value.

Type of Error Related to systematic error. Related to random error.

Can be determined with a single

Measurement Requires a set of repeated measurements.
measurement if the true value is known.

A vernier caliper that consistently measures a A micrometer that measures a 20.00 mm block as
Example 20.00 mm block as 20.01 mm is precise but 19.99 mm, 20.01 mm, and 20.00 mm is accurate but
not accurate. not highly precise.
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Objectives of Metrology (Q.4 (b) - Winter 2021, Summer 2025)

The primary objective of metrology is to ensure that measurements are consistent, reliable, and globally
comparable. Its main goals include:

To provide a foundation for scientific and technical development: By establishing a robust

system of measurements, metrology supports innovation and research.

To ensure quality control in manufacturing: Metrology verifies that manufactured products meet
design specifications and tolerances, ensuring quality, reliability, and safety.
To facilitate international trade: Standardized measurement systems enable products and
components from different countries to be compatible and interchangeable.
To ensure public safety: Metrology is crucial in fields like medicine, food and water quality, and
environmental monitoring to ensure compliance with safety standards.

To calibrate and maintain measuring instruments: It provides the framework for calibrating
instruments against recognized standards to ensure their accuracy and precision over time.

Types of Errors in Measurement (Q.4 (a) - Winter 2024)

Errors in measurement can be broadly classified into three types:

1. Systematic Errors: These errors are consistent and repeatable under the same conditions. They are
often caused by a faulty instrument, an incorrect measurement technique, or environmental factors.
They tend to shift all measurements in the same direction.
 2. Random Errors: These are unpredictable variations in measurement results. They are caused by
uncontrolled and unpredictable factors, such as slight changes in temperature, air currents, or the
observer's judgment. Random errors can be minimized by taking multiple measurements and
averaging the results.

3. Gross Errors (Human Errors): These are blunders or mistakes made by the person taking the
measurement. They are usually caused by carelessness, misreading a scale, or incorrectly recording
data.

Explanation of Systematic Errors: Systematic errors are a significant concern in metrology because they
are not easily detected by repeated measurements. They lead to a consistent bias in the results.

Causes:

Instrumental Error: The instrument itself is faulty. For example, a micrometer with a zero error will
always give a reading that is off by a constant amount.

Environmental Error: The measurement is affected by external conditions. For example, a steel rule
will expand or contract with temperature, leading to a consistent error in length measurements.

Observational Error: A consistent error in how the observer reads the instrument, like parallax error.

Systematic errors can be corrected if they are known, for example, by calibrating the instrument or
applying a correction factor.

Generalized Measurement System (Q.4 (b) (OR) - Winter 2021, Summer 2025)

A Generalized Measurement System is a conceptual model that breaks down any measuring
instrument into three main stages. This model helps in understanding how a physical quantity is sensed,
converted, and displayed.

1. Primary Sensing Element: This is the part of the instrument that directly interacts with the physical
quantity being measured. It senses the quantity and converts it into a detectable signal (often mechanical
or electrical).

Example: In a pressure gauge, the primary sensing element is the diaphragm or bellows, which
deflects in response to pressure.

2. Variable Conversion Element: This stage takes the output from the primary sensing element and
converts it into a more usable form, often amplifying or modifying the signal.

Example: In the pressure gauge, the diaphragm's deflection is converted into a rotational movement
of a gear and pinion mechanism.

3. Data Presentation Element: This is the final stage that presents the measured value in a form that is
intelligible to a human observer.
 Example: The rotational movement of the gear is displayed by a needle on a calibrated scale,
showing the pressure reading.

Linear Measuring Instruments

Linear measurements determine length, width, height, and depth. The evolution of these instruments has
been driven by the need for greater precision.

Types & Classification

Linear measuring instruments are broadly classified into direct and indirect tools.

Direct: These provide a measurement directly from a scale. Examples include steel rules, vernier
calipers, and micrometers.

Indirect: These don't have a scale. They transfer the dimension to a direct measuring instrument, like
using a caliper to measure a part and then reading the caliper's span on a steel rule.

Linear tools can also be classified based on their accuracy:

Non-Precision: Tools like steel rules and basic calipers, which are suitable for measurements with low
accuracy requirements.

Precision: Tools like micrometers and vernier calipers that use a fine-adjustment mechanism or a
secondary scale to achieve high accuracy.

Interchangeability and Assembly Methods

Interchangeability (Q.5 (a) - Winter 2021, Summer 2025)

Interchangeability is the principle that a component can be replaced by another of the same type
without affecting the proper functioning of the assembly. This is achieved by manufacturing components
within specified limits and tolerances, regardless of the factory or country of origin. The core concept is
that any male part should fit with any female part from the same production line, or even a different one,
without requiring additional fitting or modification.

Advantages:

Mass Production: It enables the mass production of parts in a non-sequential, independent manner.

Simplified Assembly: Assembly time is significantly reduced as no hand-fitting is required.

Easy Maintenance: A worn or broken part can be easily replaced with a standard spare part.

Cost Reduction: The overall cost of manufacturing and maintenance is reduced.

This is the core concept of mass production. It means any component from a batch can be assembled
with any mating component from another batch without any modification. This is achieved by
manufacturing all parts within a tight, pre-defined tolerance range. For example, any M6 bolt should fit
any M6 nut.
Selective Assembly and Interchangeability (Q.4 (b) (OR) - Winter 2024)

Interchangeability is the manufacturing principle where components are made so that they can be freely
interchanged without any special fitting or modification. This is the foundation of modern mass
production. For example, a bolt made by one company will fit a nut from another, as long as both are
manufactured to the same standard (e.g., M8).

Selective Assembly is a method used when it is difficult or expensive to achieve the high precision
required for full interchangeability. Instead of making all parts to tight tolerances, components are
manufactured to broader, more economical tolerances and then sorted into groups or grades based on
their actual size. For example, a shaft and a hole might be sorted into three categories: small, medium,
and large. A "small" shaft will only be assembled with a "small" hole, a "medium" shaft with a "medium"
hole, and so on.

Benefits and Drawbacks:

Benefit: It allows for the use of more economical manufacturing processes (broader tolerances) while
still achieving a good fit between mating parts.

Drawback: It requires a sorting process and makes part replacement more difficult, as a new part
must match the original size group.

Limits and Fits

Taylor's Principle (Q.5 (b) - Winter 2021, Summer 2025)

Taylor's Principle is a fundamental concept in the design of limit gauges (go/no-go gauges) that ensures
proper function and simplifies inspection. The principle states:

The "Go" gauge should be designed to check the Maximum Material Condition (MMC) of the
component. It should check as many features as possible simultaneously. For a shaft, this is the
largest permissible size; for a hole, it is the smallest permissible size. The "Go" gauge should be a full-
form gauge, meaning it checks the entire feature, ensuring the component is not too large and can
be assembled.

The "No-Go" gauge should be designed to check the Minimum Material Condition (LMC) of the
component. It should check only a single feature at a time. For a shaft, this is the smallest permissible
size; for a hole, it is the largest permissible size. The "No-Go" gauge should be a simple gauge that
checks if the part is too small.

Essentially, Taylor's principle says that the "Go" gauge checks the size and form of the part, while the
"No-Go" gauge checks only the size.

Types of Fits (Q.4 (b) - Winter 2024)

Fits define the relationship between a hole and a shaft that are to be assembled. There are three main
types of fits:
 1. Clearance Fit: The hole is always larger than the shaft, resulting in a positive clearance.

2. Interference Fit: The shaft is always larger than the hole, resulting in a negative clearance or
interference.

3. Transition Fit: The hole and shaft sizes can overlap, resulting in either a small clearance or a slight
interference.

Explanation of Clearance Fit: A clearance fit is used when a shaft needs to rotate or slide freely within a
hole. In this type of fit, the tolerance zone of the hole is entirely above the tolerance zone of the shaft.
This ensures that a clearance, or space, will always exist between the mating parts.

Maximum Clearance: This occurs when the hole is at its maximum size and the shaft is at its
minimum size. Max. Clearance = Max. Hole - Min. Shaft

Minimum Clearance: This occurs when the hole is at its minimum size and the shaft is at its
maximum size. Min. Clearance = Min. Hole - Max. Shaft

Limit Gauges & Gauge Design

Limit gauges are inspection tools, not measuring instruments. They don't provide a specific dimension;
instead, they check if a part's dimension falls within a specified tolerance range. The most common types
are Go and No-Go gauges.

Go Gauge: Designed to the maximum material condition (MMC), meaning it should always fit into
the part (for a hole) or over the part (for a shaft) if the part is within tolerance. It checks the overall
form and size.

No-Go Gauge: Designed to the minimum material condition (LMC), meaning it should not fit if
the part is within tolerance. It checks only a single dimension.

This is known as Taylor's Principle of Gauge Design. For a hole, the Go gauge is made to the lower
tolerance limit, and the No-Go gauge is made to the upper tolerance limit. For a shaft, it's the reverse.

Angular Measuring Instruments

These instruments measure angles and tapers.

Classification of Angular Measuring Instruments (Q.4 (a) (OR) - Winter 2021, Summer 2025)

Angular measuring instruments can be classified into several categories based on their principle of
operation and accuracy:

Direct Reading Instruments: These instruments have a graduated scale for direct reading.

Bevel Protractor: Used for measuring and marking angles.

Universal Bevel Protractor: A more advanced version with a vernier scale for higher accuracy.
Indirect Measuring Instruments: These instruments require a setup with slip gauges or other
components to determine an angle.

Sine Bar: Used in conjunction with slip gauges to set or measure angles with high precision.
Angle Gauges (Angle Blocks): Precisely machined blocks that can be combined to create a wide
range of angles.

Optical Instruments: These use light and optical principles for highly accurate measurements.

Autocollimator: Used to measure small angular deviations and flatness with extreme precision.

Angle Dekkor: An optical instrument for checking angles.

Electronic Instruments: These instruments use electronic sensors to measure and display angles
digitally.

Digital Bevel Protractor: Provides a direct digital readout of the angle.

Electronic Clinometers: Measures the angle of a surface relative to gravity.

Additional Classifications:

Bevel Protractor: A direct-reading instrument that looks like a protractor with a movable blade. A
vernier bevel protractor has an additional vernier scale for increased precision, allowing
measurements in minutes.

Clinometers: Used to measure the angle of an inclined surface relative to a horizontal plane. They
are essentially highly accurate spirit levels.
Angle Gauges: Precision standards of angle, similar to slip gauges for linear measurements. They are
used to create specific angles by wringing together a set of blocks.

Spirit Levels: Used to check for horizontal and vertical alignment.

Sine Bar (Q.4 (c) - Winter 2024)

Working Principle: The working principle of a sine bar is based on the trigonometric function of a sine.
It uses a known hypotenuse length (the distance between two rollers) and a known opposite side (the
height of a stack of slip gauges) to create a right-angled triangle. By setting the sine bar at a specific
angle, the height of the slip gauges can be calculated using the formula: h = L * sin(θ) where h is the
height of the slip gauge stack, L is the distance between the roller centers, and θ is the desired angle.

Construction: A sine bar is a precision hardened steel bar with two identical, precision ground rollers
fixed at its ends. The distance between the centers of the rollers ( L ) is a known constant, typically 100
mm, 200 mm, or 250 mm. The base of the sine bar is flat, and holes are provided in the body for easy
handling and weight reduction.

Applications:
 Setting Workpieces: To machine or inspect a workpiece at a specific angle, the sine bar is used with
slip gauges to tilt the workpiece to the required angle.

Measuring Angles: It is used to measure the angle of a component by adjusting the height of the
slip gauges until the top surface of the workpiece is parallel to the surface plate. The angle is then
calculated from the known height and the length of the sine bar.
Checking Tapers: Sine bars are widely used to check the angle of a tapered component.

A sine bar is a precision instrument used with slip gauges and a surface plate to accurately set or
measure an angle using trigonometry. The angle is determined by the sine of the angle, which is the ratio
of the height of the slip gauge stack to the length of the sine bar. This is an indirect method of
measurement.

Autocollimator (Q.4 (c) (OR) - Winter 2021, Summer 2025)

Autocollimator: An autocollimator is an optical instrument used to measure very small angular

deviations with extremely high precision. It is essentially a telescope and a collimator combined into a
single unit. It works on the principle of projecting a beam of parallel light and detecting the reflection
from a distant, highly polished mirror.

Working Principle: A light source in the autocollimator illuminates a target graticule (a cross-hair). This
light passes through a collimating lens, which makes the light rays perfectly parallel. This parallel beam is
then projected out of the instrument towards an external mirror. The light reflects off the mirror and
travels back into the autocollimator. If the mirror is perfectly perpendicular to the light beam, the
reflected rays will retrace their path and focus back onto the original graticule. However, if the mirror is
tilted by a small angle, the reflected light will return at double that angle. This shift in the reflected image
is detected by a sensor (or eyepiece) in the focal plane of the lens. The magnitude of this shift is directly
proportional to the tilt of the mirror, allowing for a precise measurement of the angular deviation.

Applications:

Checking Flatness: An autocollimator can be used with a mirror placed on a surface to check its
flatness by measuring angular deviations at multiple points.
Alignment of Machine Tools: It is used to align the guideways and tables of machine tools, ensuring
they are straight and parallel.
Measuring Squareness and Parallelism: It can measure the squareness between two surfaces and
the parallelism of two axes.

Calibration of Angle Gauges: It is used to calibrate and verify the accuracy of angle blocks and
prisms.

Additional Applications of Autocollimators: Autocollimators are widely used in metrology for:

Checking the straightness and flatness of machine tool beds and surfaces.
 Measuring angular alignment and parallelism.
Calibrating rotary tables and indexing heads.

Checking the squareness of components.

A high-precision optical instrument used to measure very small angular deviations. It projects a beam of
light that reflects off a mirror and returns to the instrument. Any angular deviation of the mirror is
measured by the instrument.

SAMPLE EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

Chapter 1: Introduction to CNC Machine Tools

Q.1 (a) Explain types of guide ways used in CNC machine tool. (Winter 2021, Summer 2025)

Q.1 (a) Write the application of CNC machine. (Winter 2024)

Q.1 (b) Mention the requirements of a good slide way system in a CNC machine. (Winter 2021,
Summer 2025)

Q.1 (b) Explain the open loop and close loop control system with block diagram. (Winter 2021,
Summer 2025)

Q.1 (c) Explain CNC Machine according to types of controllers. (Winter 2021, Summer 2025)

Q.1 (c) Explain the principle of recirculating ball screw. Make a table of comparison between a
conventional screw and a ball screw regarding load carrying capacity, travel speed, positioning,
stiffness, friction, efficiency and maintenance. (Winter 2021, Summer 2025)

Q.2 (a) Explain clearly the difference between NC and CNC machine. (Summer 2025)

Chapter 2: CNC Programming and Codes

Q.3 (a) Define canned cycle with example. (Winter 2021, Summer 2025)

Q.3 (a) What are canned cycle? list out commonly used canned cycle for turning centers. (Winter
2024)

Q.3 (a) (OR) Explain function of G00, G03, G77, M06, M03, M08. (Winter 2021, Summer 2025)

Q.3 (a) (OR) What is the difference between G-codes and M-codes in CNC programming? Provide
examples of each. (Winter 2024)

Q.3 (b) Explain cutter radius compensation and tool length compensation. (Winter 2021, Summer
2025)

Q.3 (b) Explain with neat sketch axis designation for CNC turning center. (Winter 2024)
Q.3 (b) (OR) Explain Coordinate system used in CNC machine tools. (Summer 2025)

Q.3 (b) (OR) Make a note of types of formats for manual part programming. Discuss any two.
(Winter 2024)

Q.3 (c) Write a manual part programming for finishing the component fig (A). assume the spindle
speed as 600 r. p. m. and feed rate 0.2 mm/rev. (Winter 2024)

Chapter 3: Metrology and Measuring Instruments

Q.4 (a) Compare the terms accuracy and precision. (Winter 2021, Summer 2025)

Q.4 (a) List out the types of errors in measurement. Explain anyone. (Winter 2024)

Q.4 (a) (OR) Classify various angular measuring instruments. (Winter 2021, Summer 2025)

Q.4 (b) Discuss objective of metrology. (Winter 2021, Summer 2025)

Q.4 (b) List out the types of fits. And explain any one with neat sketch. (Winter 2024)

Q.4 (b) (OR) Explain selective assembly and interchangeability. (Winter 2024)

Q.4 (b) (OR) Explain Generalized Measurement System using suitable example. (Winter 2021,
Summer 2025)

Q.4 (c) Write the working principle, construction with a neat sketch of sine bar. And explain its
application. (Winter 2024)

Q.4 (c) (OR) Sketch and working of autocollimator and write application. (Winter 2021, Summer
2025)

Q.5 (a) Explain Interchangeability. (Winter 2021, Summer 2025)

Q.5 (b) State what is maximum and minimum material limits according to Taylor's principal.
(Winter 2021, Summer 2025)

This comprehensive guide covers CNC machine tools fundamentals, detailed CNC programming concepts,
and essential metrology principles, providing a complete foundation for understanding modern computer-
controlled manufacturing systems and precision measurement techniques.