Practical Class #7

Methods and Techniques of Translation

1. Ilko Korunets.
Translating is inseparable from understanding, and it goes along with conveying content and
sometimes even the form of language units. As a result, the process of translation, provided it is not
performed at the level of separate simple words, involves simultaneously some aspects of the source
language and those of the target language. These are morphology (word-building and word forms),
the lexicon (words, phraseologisms, mots), syntax (the means of connection and the structure of
syntaxemes), stylistics (peculiarities of speech styles, tropes, etc.).
The level or the degree of faithfulness of translation is mostly predetermined by some factors,
which may be both of objective and of subjective nature. The main of them are the purpose of the
translation to be performed, the skill of the translator/interpreter, the type of the matter selected
for translation, etc. Depending on these and some other factors, the following methods of translating
are traditionally recognized in the theory and practice of translation.
1. Literal translating, which is to be employed when dealing with separate words whose surface
form and structure, as well as their lexical meaning in the source language and in the target
language, fully coincide. These are predominantly international by original morphemes,
lexemes/words, rarer word-groups having in English and Ukrainian (and often in some other
languages too) a literally identical or very similar presentation and identical lexical meaning:
administrator — адміністратор, director — директор, region — регіон, hotel/motel —
готель/мотель, hydrometer — гідрометр, Tom — Том, etc.
It is easy to notice that in some words thus translated not only the morphemic but also the syllabic
structure can sometimes be fully conveyed (cf. an-ti — ан-ти, es-cort — ес-корт, direct-or —
директ-ор, ex-presid-ent — екс-прези-дент).
In many a case, however, the lingual form of the source language words is only partly conveyed in
the target language. This happens when the common word is borrowed by each of the two
languages in question from different source languages or when its lingual form is predetermined by
the orthographic peculiarities of the target language: anti-alcoholic — протиалкогольний, music —
музика, constitution — конституція, zoology — зоологія, atomic weight — атомна вага,
chemical process — хімічний процес, national opera theatre — національний оперний театр.
The literal translation in all the examples above provides an equivalent rendering of the lexical
meaning of each language unit despite the augmentation in the number of morphemes/syllables in
the target language.
Close to the literal method of translating or rather reproduction is the so-called way of translator’s
transcription by means of which partly the orthographic and partly the sounding form of the source
language lexemes/words is conveyed: archbishop — архієпископ, card — картка/карта,
European — європейський, organized — організований, stylized — стилізований, therapeutic
терапевтичний.
Literal translating, however, can pervert the sense of the source language lexemes or sentences
when their lingual form accidentally coincides with some other target language lexemes having
quite different meanings: artist — митець, художник (rarer артист); decoration — відзнака,
нагорода (and not декорація); replica — точна копія (and not репліка), etc. Hence, literal
translating has some restrictions in its employment and does not always help to render the lexical
meaning of words or even morphemes having often even an identical lingual form (spelling) in the
source language and in the target language.
2. Verbal translating is also employed at lexeme/word level. But unlike literal translating it never
conveys the orthographic or the sounding form of the source language units, but their denotative
meaning only: fearful — страшний, fearless — безстрашний, helpless — безпорадний, incorrect
неправильний, mistrust — недовіра, superprofit — надприбуток, non-interference —
невтручання, weightlessness — невагомість, etc.
All the words above are practically translated at the lexico-morphological level, as their lexical
meanings and morphological stems are identical to those of the English words. The overwhelming
majority of other words, when translated verbally do not preserve their structure in the target
language. That is explained by the differences in the morphological systems of the English and
Ukrainian languages: abundantly — рясно, bank — берег (береговий), cliff — бескид (скеля,
круча), myself — я, я сам/сама; автомат — automatic machine/rifle, заввишки — high/tall,
письменник — writer (author), червоніти — to get/grow red, etc.
Verbal translating of polysemantic words permits a choice among some variants which is practically
impossible in literal translating, which aims only at maintaining the literal form. Thus, the
Ukrainian word автомат can have the following equivalent variants in English: 1. automatic
machine; 2. slot-machine; 3. automatic telephone; 4. submachine gun (tommy gun). Similarly, the
Englsih word bank when out of a definite context may have the following equivalent variants in
Ukrainian: 1. берег (річки); 2. банк; 3. вал/насип; 4. мілина; 5. замет; 6. крен, віраж (авіац.); 7.
поклади (корисних копалин). The literal variant/equivalent of the noun bank Ukrainian can be,
naturally, «банк» only.
Verbal translating, however, does not and cannot provide a faithful conveying of sense/content at
other than word level. When employed at the level of word-combinations or sentences verbal
translation may often make the language units ungrammatical and pervert or completely ruin their
sense, cf: I am reading now is not я є читаючий зараз but я читаю зараз; never say die is not
ніколи не кажи помираю but не падай духом; to grow strong is not рости міцним but ставати
дужим; to take measures is not брати міри but вживати заходів.
Despite this, verbal translation is widely employed first of all at language level, i.e., when the
lexical meaning of separate words is to be identified. A graphic example of verbal translation is
presented in dictionaries which list the lexical meanings of thousands of separate words. Verbal
translation is also employed for the sake of discriminating the meanings of some words at the
lessons, with the aim of identifying the meaning of the unknown words (when translating sentences
or passages).
3. Word-for-word translation is another method of rendering sense. It presents a consecutive
verbal translation though at the level of word-groups and sentences. This way of translation is often
employed both consciously and subconsciously by students in the process of translating alien
grammatical constructions/word forms. Sometimes students at the initial stage of learning a foreign
language may employ this way of translation even when dealing with seemingly common phrases
or sentences, which are structurally different from their equivalents in the native tongue. Usually the
students employ word-for-word translation to convey the sense of word-groups or sentences which
have a structural form, the order of words, and the means of connection quite different from those in
the target language.
To achieve faithfulness various grammatical transformations are to be performed in the process of
translation and in the translation itself word-for-word variants are to be corrected to avoid various
grammatical violations made by the inexperienced students. Cf. you are right to begin with — ви
маєте рацію, щоб почати з instead of почнемо з того/припустимо, що ви маєте рацію.
4. The interlinear way/method of translating is a conventional term for a strictly faithful
rendering of sense expressed by word-groups and sentences at the level of some text. The latter may
be a passage, a stanza, an excerpt of a work or the work itself. The method of interlinear translation
may be practically applied to all speech units (sentences, supersyntactic units, passages). Interlinear
translation always provides a completely faithful conveying only of content, which is often
achieved through various transformations of structure of many sense units. For example, the
sentence Who took my book? admits only one word-for-word variant, namely: Хто взяв мою
книжку?
In interlinear translation, however, the full content of this sentence can be faithfully rendered with
the help of two and sometimes even three equivalent variants: У кого моя книжка? Хто брав/узяв
мою книжку? The choice of any of the transformed variants is predetermined by the aim of the
translation, by the circumstances under which the translating/interpreting is performed or by the
requirements of style (for example, in order to avoid the unnecessary repetition of the same form of
expression/structure close to each other).
Interlinear translating is neither bound to nor in any way restricted by the particularities of word
forms, by the word order or by the structural form of the source language units, which are usually
word-combinations or sentences in the passage/work under translation.
As can be seen, the Ukrainian variants of the English sentence above (Who took my book?) bear no
traces of interference on the part of the English language with its rigid word order in each
paradigmatic kind of sentences. Neither is there any peculiar English word-combination
transplanted to the Ukrainian sentences, as it often occurs in word-for-word translations. Hence,
various transformations in interlinear translations, like in literary translations, are inevitable and
they are called forth by grammatical/structural, stylistic and other divergences in the source
language and in the target language. This can be seen from the following examples: the student is
being asked now — студента зараз запитують; she said she would come — вона казала, що
прийде; it will have been done by then — на той час/до того часу це буде зроблено.
Transformations are also inevitable when there exists no identity in the form of expressing the same
notion in the source language and in the target language: a trip — коротка подорож; їздити на
лижах — to ski; to participate — брати участь; овдовіти — to become a widow/widower,
знесилитися — to become/grow weak (feeble).
Very often transformations become also necessary in order to overcome divergences in the
structural form of English syntaxemes which are predominantly analytical by their structural form,
whereas their Ukrainian word-groups of the same meaning are mostly synthetic and analytico-
synthetic by structure: books of my father — книжки мого батька; Kyivstreet traffic regulations
— правила дорожнього руху міста Києва.
Interlinear translating is widely practised at the intermediary and advanced stages of studying a
foreign language. It is helpful when checking up the students’ understanding of certain structurally
peculiar English sense units in the passage under translation. Interlinear translations of literary
works, when perfected by regular masters of the pen, may become good literary variants of the
original. But interlinear translations do not convey the literary merits/artistic features and beauty of
the original. While performing the interlinear translation the student tries to convey completely the
content of a source language sentence, stanza or passage. He quite subconsciously analyses the
passage, selects in the target language the necessary means of expression for the allomorphic and
isomorphic phenomena/sense units unknown to him and only after this he performs the translation.
The interlinear method of translating helps the student to obtain the necessary training in rendering
the main aspects of the foreign language.
5. Literary translating represents the highest level of a translator’s activity. Any type of matter
skilfully turned into the target language, especially by a regular master of the pen may acquire the
faithfulness and the literary (or artistic) standard equal to that of the source language. Depending on
the type of the matter under translation, this method of performance may be either literary proper
or literary artistic.
Literary artistic translation presents a faithful conveying of content and of the artistic merits only
of a fiction/belles-lettres passage or work. The latter may be either of a prose or a poetic genre
(verse).
Literary proper translation is performed on any other than fiction/belles-lettres passages/works.
These may include scientific or technical matter, didactic matter (different text-books), business
correspondence, the language of documents, epistolary texts, etc. In short, any printed or recorded
matter devoid of artistic merits (epithets, metaphors, etc.). But whether literary proper or literary
artistic, this translation provides an equivalent rendering not only of complete content but also of
the stylistic peculiarities of the passage/work and its artistic merits/beauty, as in belles-lettres style
texts.
Literary translations are always performed in literary all-nation languages and with many
transformations which help achieve the ease and beauty of the original composition. The number of
phrases and sentences in a literary translation is never the same as in the source language
passage/work, neither are the same means of expression or the number and quality of stylistic
devices per paragraph/syntactic superstructure. All these transformations are made in order to
achieve faithfulness in rendering content and expressiveness of the passage/ work under translation.
Transformations are also used to convey the features of style and in still greater measure the genre
peculiarities of the works/passages under translation.
Literary proper/literary artistic translation of a larger passage/work often requires linguistic,
historical and other inquiries in order to clarify the obscure places (historic events, notions of
specific national lexicon, neologisms, archaisms, etc.). Sometimes even the title of a work may
require a philologic or historic inquiry. So, «Слово о полку Ігоревім» in a verbal or word-for-word
translation would be “A Word about Ihor’s Regiment” which does not in any way correspond to the
real meaning of this title, since the author meant under «Слово» story, tale, saga, song. The word
полк did not mean the military unit of today’s armies (regiment) but troop, host, army. Therefore,
the meaning of полк would be in Ukrainian дружина and the whole title would sound in
contemporary translation as The Tale of the Host of Ihor, which corresponds to the real meaning of
the title (оповідь, повість, пісня про Ігореве військо, i.e. дружину).
2. Peter Newmark.
The central problem of translating has always been whether to translate literally or freely. The
argument has been going on since at least the first century BC up to the beginning of the nineteenth
century. Many writers favoured some kind of Tree translation: the spirit, not the letter; the sense not
the words; the message rather than the form: the matter not the manner. This was the often
revolutionary slogan of writers who wanted the truth to be read and understood. Then at the turn of
the nineteenth century, when the study of cultural anthropology suggested that the linguistic barriers
were insuperable and that language was entirely the product of culture, the view that translation was
impossible gained some currency, and with it that it must be as literal as possible. The argument was
theoretical: the purpose of the translation, the nature of the readership, the type of text, was not
discussed. Too often, writer, translator and reader were implicitly identified with each other. Now
the context has changed, but the basic problem remains.
1. Word-for-word translation. This is often demonstrated as interlinear translation, with The TL
immediately below the SL words. The SL word-order is preserved and the words translated singly
by their most common meanings, out of context. Cultural words are translated literally. The main
use of word-for-word translation is either to understand the mechanics of the source language or to
construe a difficult text as a pre-translation process.
Drawbacks:
 does not consider the target language and relies on the source language only;
 does not take account of the grammars of both languages, namely when these two languages
descend from two very different families;
 does not take both languages word order into account;
 neglects the context which is very important to understand the meaning of a given sentence;
 ignores the metaphorical use of words which represents the culture of language;
 cannot find equivalents which do not exist in the target language.
2. Literal translation. This type of translation preserves the grammatical structures of the SL where
they are translated into their nearest TL equivalents. It takes place when the SL and TL share
parallel structures. Words are translated out of context paying no attention to their connotative
meanings. This method of translation resembles the first one (word-for-word translation) in two
main aspects: it considers the source language word order and it emphasizes on having the same
kind and number of words. However, it differentiates from it in two points: it does not neglect
context and it finds metaphorical equivalents in the target language for metaphorical words in the
source language. As a pre-translation process, this indicates the problems to be solved.
3. Faithful translation. This method maintains a balance between the literal meaning of the SL
word and the TL syntactic structures. A faithful translation attempts to reproduce the precise
contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the target language grammatical
structures. It ‘transfers’ cultural words and preserves the degree of grammatical and lexical
‘abnormality’ (deviation from the source language norms) in the translation. It attempts to be
completely faithful to the intentions and the text realization of the source language writer. It sounds
more reasonable as it takes the context into consideration, aiming at producing more precise
meaning of the SL texts.
4. Communicative translation. This type of translation attempts to render the exact contextual
meaning of the original text in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and
comprehensible to the reader. Communicative translation aspires to create the same effect created
by the SL text on the TL reader. Though it is not as accurate as semantic translation which sticks to
the original text, it communicates the meaning at the expense of accuracy. It is usually used for
culturally specific idioms, proverbs or clichés where the translator replaces a SL word or concept
with one that already exists in the TL.
5. Semantic translation. Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and
syntactic structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original. A
semantic translation is more source text focused. Although, not necessarily a literal translation, it
follows the source text more closely. In contrast, communicative translation centres on the
specific language and culture and focuses on the TL readers. The translation under this method is
clear, smooth and concise. A communicative translation is focused on the target text and aims to
ensure that the reader will understand the message of the text. Semantic translation, on the other
hand, differs from faithful translation only in as far as it must take more account of the aesthetic
value of the source language text, compromising on the ‘meaning’ so that no assonance, word-play
or repetition jars in the finished version. Further, it may translate less important cultural words by
culturally neutral terms but not by cultural equivalents. Thus, the distinction between faithful and
semantic translation is that the first is uncompromising and dogmatic, while the second is more
flexible.
6. Adaptation. This is the ‘freest’ form of translation. It is used mainly for plays (comedies and
poetry; the themes, characters, plots are usually preserved, the SL culture converted to the TL
culture and the text rewritten). Adaptation means the modification of the idea in the SL so as to find
an acceptable one in the TL. It is necessary when something specific to one language culture is
expressed in a totally different way that is familiar or appropriate to another language culture. For
example, translating the title of Hemingway’s masterpiece The Old Man and the Sea into Arabic
like The Sheikh and the Sea. The translation of metaphors, proverbs, etc. also frequently involve
this technique. For instance, camel may be culturally a translation equivalent of horse and vice
versa.
7. Free translation. This method preserves the meaning of the original but uses natural forms of the
TL, including normal word order and syntax, so that the translation can be naturally understood. It
preserves the content at the expense of the form, and it provides a longer paraphrase of the original.
It is a form of idiomatic translation that favours colloquialisms and idioms which do not exist in the
SL. In other words, this type of translation focuses on translating freely because the translator is not
limited to the text or context or the denotative meaning of a word or a phrase, but goes beyond
words and phrases and out of texts and outside contexts. Free translation has subtypes mainly:
a) Bound free translation;
b) Loose free translation.
3. Wolfram Wilss.
1. Borrowing refers to the direct transfer of a lexical item from the source language into the target
language with little to no modification in form or meaning. This method is typically used when
there is no direct equivalent in the TL or when the borrowed term carries specific cultural or
technical connotations that the TL cannot adequately convey on its own. Borrowings are often used
in domains like politics, technology, gastronomy, and fashion. Examples: inauguration —
інавгурація, hot dog — хот-дог. These borrowings retain their original phonological shape with
slight adaptations to fit TL phonetics and orthographic rules.
2. Loan translation (calque) involves a word-for-word or element-for-element substitution from
the SL to the TL. It is most common with compound nouns or idiomatic expressions. In this
method, each part of the SL expression is translated literally, preserving the semantic structure of
the original. While calques may initially seem unnatural, many become normalized through usage.
Examples: soap opera — мильна опера, hot line — гаряча лінія. Wilss emphasizes that calques
should only be used when they do not distort meaning or produce unnatural phrasing in the TL.
3. Literal translation involves a direct syntactic and semantic transfer from SL to TL, typically at
the clause or sentence level. It is used when SL and TL structures are sufficiently parallel to
maintain both meaning and form without distortion. This method is effective when the linguistic
and cultural structures of both languages are closely aligned. Example: to breathe new life (into
something) — вдихнути нове життя. Wilss notes that literal translation is the default strategy, to
be employed unless it results in ungrammatical or unnatural TL output.
4. Transposition refers to the change of grammatical categories in the process of translation. It
often involves shifts such as changing a noun to a verb, an adjective to a noun, or a passive
construction to an active one, while preserving the meaning. This method is particularly useful
when SL and TL have different syntactic norms. Examples: no smoking — не палити (noun +
gerund — verb phrase), full — місць немає (adjective — full sentence with noun and verb). Wilss
views transposition as a key technique for achieving idiomatic translations.
5. Modulation involves changing the perspective or cognitive category in translation. Instead of
directly translating words, the translator shifts the point of view to make the TL version more
natural or contextually appropriate. This is especially necessary when literal translation would
obscure the intended meaning or sound unnatural. Examples: please find enclosed — висилаємо
вам, keep out — вхід заборонено, lost property office — бюро знахідок. According to Wilss,
modulation demands a high degree of interpretive competence from the translator.
6. Equivalence pertains to the use of functionally or contextually corresponding expressions in the
TL that achieve the same communicative effect as the SL original. It is especially applicable to
idioms, proverbs, greetings, exclamations, and other culturally embedded forms. Rather than literal
accuracy, the focus is on pragmatic and emotional resonance. Examples: never say die — не падай
духом, to be scared out of one’s life — бути наляканим до смерті. Wilss underscores that
equivalence enables translators to bridge cultural and expressive gaps without sacrificing idiomatic
integrity.
7. Adaptation is the most culturally sensitive translation technique, involving substantial alteration
of the SL message to fit TL norms and cultural expectations. It is used when a literal or even
equivalent translation would be incomprehensible or inappropriate. Adaptation often replaces
culturally bound elements with ones more familiar to the TL audience. Examples: будьмо —
cheers, на здоров’я (in response to дякую) — you are welcome or it’s my pleasure. Wilss considers
adaptation a form of ‘cultural translation,’ requiring deep knowledge of both source and target
cultures.
Transcoding is a translation technique in which the audio and/or graphic form of a word from the
source language is rendered using the alphabet and phonological rules of the target language. This
method is typically employed when:
 There is no existing equivalent in the TL;
 The term is newly introduced, often in technical, scientific, or cultural contexts;
 The translator cannot find an adequate descriptive or functional substitute that preserves
both the conceptual accuracy and terminological precision.
Transcoding is a form-driven method that prioritizes phonological and orthographic correspondence
over semantic adaptation. In many cases, it is preliminary, used until the TL develops or adopts a
more suitable term. It is most frequently seen in the fields of technology, media, and science, where
terms are coined rapidly and disseminated globally.
Types of Transcoding
1. Transliteration involves converting each letter or character of the SL word into corresponding
letters of the TL, maintaining a close grapheme-to-grapheme equivalence. This technique tends to
preserve the visual structure of the original word more than its phonetic realization. Examples:
commutator — комутатор, processor — процесор, operator — оператор, monitor — монітор,
printer — принтер. Wilss would consider transliteration a low-level transfer operation, useful
primarily when the target language’s phonotactics allow for it without significant distortion.
2. Transcription focuses on rendering the sound form (phonetic structure) of the SL term using TL
spelling conventions. This approach is more phonetically motivated, aiming to reproduce how the
word sounds to a TL speaker. Examples: tuner — тюнер, browser — браузер, site — сайт,
provider — провайдер, cluster — кластер. This subtype is especially common when the foreign
term has auditory prominence, such as in product names or branding.
3. Mixed transcoding combines both transliteration and transcription methods to approximate both
the visual and auditory components of the SL term. This hybrid form is frequently used in popular
media and computer terminology. Examples: online — он-лайн, interface — інтерфейс, organizer
— органайзер, device — девайс, chat — чат, chipset — чіпсет, adaptor — адаптор. Wilss
would likely categorize this under context-sensitive strategies, where strict phonetic or graphic
transfer alone would not suffice.
4. Adaptive transcoding modifies the original SL word to fit the morphological, phonological, and
grammatical norms of the TL. It often involves domestication techniques, such as:
 Palatalization or softening at the end of words (e.g., модуль);
 Gender marking or the use of derivational suffixes common in the TL (e.g., модифікація).
Examples: profile — профіль, matrix — матриця, domain — домен, command — команда, card
— карта, menu — меню, viewer — в’ювер. This method is the most integrative, aligning foreign
words with the morphosyntactic patterns of the TL. Wilss would view this as an intermediate level
between formal equivalence and functional adaptation.
5. Calque or loan translation is a technique where a new word or expression is translated element
by element (morpheme by morpheme or word by word) from the source language into the target
language. It is often used when a concept is new in both the SL and TL cultures, but its structure is
simple enough to be transferred directly. This is typical for neologisms, compound nouns, or
cultural innovations. Calques are especially useful when:
 The TL lacks a ready-made term for a newly coined SL expression.
 The structural pattern is easy to replicate in the TL.
 The term’s literal meaning is transparent enough for native speakers to infer the intended
sense.
Examples: pity friend — друг з жалості, shelfie — фотополиці. Wilss would classify this as a
form of structural equivalence, effective where conceptual correspondence exists and lexical units
can be substituted linearly without semantic distortion.
6. Explication/descriptive translation is used when a direct equivalent is absent or the concept is
too new, culture-specific, or complex to be captured in a single TL word. This strategy involves
rephrasing or explaining the meaning using multiple words or even an entire clause in the TL.
Descriptive translation is crucial when:
 The SL term has no semantic parallel in the TL.
 The SL word is a compressed concept (e.g., portmanteau, slang, or technical jargon).
 Clarity and comprehension in the TL take precedence over brevity.
Examples: ungoogleable — людина, про яку немає інформації в Інтернеті, sharent — один з
батьків, який розміщує занадто багато інформації про дитину в своїх соцмережах. Wilss
highlights explication as a problem-solving tool in translation, one that prioritizes communicative
value and pragmatic accuracy, especially when dealing with culture-bound or recently coined terms.
Analyze one short text passage with the focus on the translation techniques you used.
The Ministry of Truth—Minitrue, in Newspeak—was startlingly different from any other object in
sight. It was an enormous pyramidal structure of glittering white concrete, soaring terrace after
terrace, 300 meters into the air. (1984 by George Orwell)
Міністерство Правди — Мініправд Новомовою — разюче відрізнялося від будь-чого іншого у
полі зору. Величезна пірамідальна споруда з блискучого білого бетону, що стриміла — тераса
за терасою — на триста метрів у височінь. (Translation by Viktor Shovkun)
Translation techniques applied:
1. Literal translation. The sentence structure and vocabulary closely mirror the original,
maintaining the syntactic and semantic integrity of the source text.
2. Transposition. The phrase “soaring terrace after terrace” is rendered as «тераса за терасою
— на триста метрів у височінь», which involves a shift in grammatical structure to fit Ukrainian
stylistic norms while preserving the original meaning.
3. Modulation. The term “startlingly different” is translated as «разюче відрізнялося», which
conveys the same idea but adjusts the expression to align with Ukrainian linguistic preferences.
4. Calque (loan translation). “Ministry of Truth” becomes «Міністерство Правди», a direct
translation that maintains the original's conceptual framework.
5. Adaptation. The use of «Мініправд» for “Minitrue” demonstrates adaptation to the
phonological and morphological patterns of Ukrainian, ensuring the term fits naturally within the
language.
This translation employs a combination of literal translation, transposition, modulation, calque, and
adaptation to faithfully convey the original text’s meaning and stylistic nuances. This approach
ensures that the translated passage resonates with Ukrainian readers while preserving the thematic
and atmospheric elements of Orwell’s work.