SAT Math: Functions Study Guide

Sections 1–11 | English Edition

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Covers Sections 1–11: function language, linear, quadratic and exponential

functions, polynomial/absolute-value/radical/rational functions,
transformations, intersections, contextual interpretation, data models,
domain and range, and common mistakes.

SAT Math: Functions Study Guide | English Edition 1

Contents
1 The Language of Functions
2 Linear Functions
3 Quadratic Functions
4 Exponential Functions
5 Polynomial, Absolute-Value, Radical, and Rational Functions
6 Graph Transformations
7 Intersections and Systems
8 Interpreting Parameters in Context
9 Data and Function Models
10 Domain and Range
11 Common SAT Mistakes

1. The Language of Functions

The first step in a function problem is not calculation. It is correctly interpreting notation, inputs,
outputs, and the relationship among equations, graphs, tables, and real-world contexts.

1.1 Function Notation

f(x) = 2x + 3
 f(4): substitute x = 4 and find the output.
 f(a): substitute x = a.
 f(x) = 11: find the input value or values that produce an output of 11.
 f(2) + f(3): evaluate both function values, then add them.
 [f(b) − f(a)] / (b − a): the average rate of change on the interval [a, b].
Example: If f(x) = x² − 5, then f(3) = 3² − 5 = 4.

Do not confuse: f(3) is one output value, while f(x) = 3 is an equation that must be solved.

1.2 Inputs and Outputs

 Input: usually x.
 Output: usually f(x) or y.
 If the point (a, b) lies on the graph, then f(a) = b.
Example: A graph that passes through (4, 7) tells you that f(4) = 7.

1.3 Moving Among Four Representations

1. Equation
2. Graph
3. Table
4. Verbal context

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 x 1 2 3
f(x) 5 8 11

Each time x increases by 1, f(x) increases by 3, so the slope is 3. Using the point (1, 5), the y-
intercept is 2; therefore, f(x) = 3x + 2.

2. Linear Functions
Linear functions are the most basic and most frequently tested function type. Their defining
feature is constant additive change: equal changes in the input produce equal changes in the
output.

2.1 Slope
m = (y₂ − y₁) / (x₂ − x₁)
 Find slope from two points.
 Read rise over run from a graph.
 Use a table to divide the change in output by the change in input.
 Identify a unit rate from a verbal context.
 Use slope to classify a function as increasing, decreasing, or constant.
f(x) = mx + b
 m > 0: the function is increasing.
 m < 0: the function is decreasing.
 m = 0: the function is constant.
 A larger |m| means a steeper graph.
Context meaning: Slope tells you how much y changes when x increases by 1 unit. Include
both direction and units in your interpretation.

2.2 The y-Intercept and Initial Value

f(x) = mx + b, where b = f(0)
 The point where the graph crosses the y-axis.
 The output when x = 0.
 The initial amount, fixed fee, or starting quantity in context.
Example: In C(t) = 25 + 10t, 25 is the fixed fee and 10 is the additional cost per hour.

2.3 Writing a Linear Function

 Given slope and intercept: use f(x) = mx + b.
 Given one point and slope: use y − y₁ = m(x − x₁).
 Given two points: find the slope first, then substitute either point to find the intercept.
 Given a table or context: identify the constant rate of change and the initial value.

2.4 Determining Whether a Function Is Linear

Core test: Equal input changes must produce equal output changes.

x 0 1 2 3
y 5 8 11 14

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The first differences are always 3, so the function is linear. If the outputs are multiplied by the
same factor instead, the relationship is usually exponential.

2.5 Parallel and Perpendicular Lines

Parallel: m₁ = m₂
Perpendicular: m₁m₂ = −1
Perpendicular slopes are negative reciprocals. For example, a line with slope 2 is perpendicular to
a line with slope −1/2.

3. Quadratic Functions
Quadratic functions are the central nonlinear function type on the SAT. You should quickly
recognize which information is revealed by each algebraic form.

3.1 Three Common Forms

Standard form: f(x) = ax² + bx + c
 The y-intercept is visible immediately: f(0) = c.
Factored form: f(x) = a(x − r₁)(x − r₂)
 The zeros are visible immediately: x = r₁ and x = r₂.
Vertex form: f(x) = a(x − h)² + k
 The vertex is visible immediately: (h, k).
Common SAT task: Choose the equivalent form that displays a requested feature most
clearly.

3.2 Zeros, Roots, and x-Intercepts

To find zeros, solve f(x) = 0
Example: If f(x) = (x − 3)(x + 5), then the zeros are x = 3 and x = −5, and the x-intercepts are
(3, 0) and (−5, 0).

3.3 Vertex, Maximum, and Minimum

The vertex of f(x) = a(x − h)² + k is (h, k)
 a > 0: the parabola opens upward, so the vertex gives the minimum value.
 a < 0: the parabola opens downward, so the vertex gives the maximum value.
Axis of symmetry in standard form: x = −b / (2a)
Find the x-coordinate of the axis of symmetry, then substitute it into the function to obtain the y-
coordinate of the vertex.

3.4 Number of Real Solutions

 Two intersections with the x-axis: two real solutions.
 One tangent point with the x-axis: one real solution, or a repeated root.
 No intersection with the x-axis: no real solutions.
Discriminant: Δ = b² − 4ac

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 Δ > 0: two distinct real solutions.
 Δ = 0: one real solution.
 Δ < 0: no real solutions.

4. Exponential Functions
f(x) = a·bˣ
 a = f(0): the initial value.
 b: the growth or decay factor for each unit of time.

4.1 Growth and Decay

Exponential growth: b > 1
Exponential decay: 0 < b < 1
Example: An 8% annual increase gives f(t) = a(1.08)ᵗ, while an 8% annual decrease gives f(t) =
a(0.92)ᵗ.

4.2 Percent Change and Multiplicative Factors

Growth factor = 1 + r
Decay factor = 1 − r
Change Multiplier
Increase by 25% 1.25
Decrease by 25% 0.75
Double 2
Halve 0.5

4.3 Recognizing an Exponential Table

x 0 1 2 3
f(x) 4 12 36 108

Each output is multiplied by 3, so f(x) = 4·3ˣ. Quick rule: constant difference → linear; constant
ratio → exponential.

4.4 Converting Time Units

Suppose a quantity doubles every 3 hours, starts at 100, and t is measured in hours. Then:

P(t) = 100·2^(t/3)
Key idea: The exponent counts how many growth periods have passed; it does not
automatically equal the time variable.

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5. Polynomial, Absolute-Value, Radical, and
Rational Functions
5.1 Polynomial Functions
 Expand and factor expressions.
 Find zeros.
 Use the Factor Theorem.
 Interpret multiplicity.
 Evaluate function values.
 Recognize equivalent expressions.
Example: f(x) = (x − 2)²(x + 3)
 x = 2 has multiplicity 2: the graph typically touches the x-axis and turns around.
 x = −3 has multiplicity 1: the graph crosses the x-axis.
The SAT generally does not require advanced end-behavior analysis of high-degree polynomials,
but it does test the connection among factors, zeros, and graph intercepts.

5.2 Rational Functions

f(x) = (x + 2) / (x − 3)
The denominator cannot equal zero, so x ≠ 3. Common tasks include substitution, simplification,
solving equations, identifying allowed inputs, and analyzing graphs or intersections.

5.3 Radical Functions

f(x) = √(x − 4)
For real-number outputs, the radicand must satisfy x − 4 ≥ 0, so the domain is x ≥ 4. Common
tasks include radical equations, domain restrictions, graph starting points, and transformations.

5.4 Absolute-Value Functions

f(x) = a|x − h| + k
 The vertex is (h, k).
 a > 0: the V opens upward.
 a < 0: the V opens downward.
|x − a| = b ⇒ x − a = b or x − a = −b

6. Graph Transformations
Assume the original function is y = f(x). Horizontal translations are the most common source of
sign errors.
New Function Graph Change
y = f(x) + k Shift up k units when k > 0
y = f(x) − k Shift down k units
y = f(x − h) Shift right h units
y = f(x + h) Shift left h units
y = −f(x) Reflect across the x-axis

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 New Function Graph Change
Vertical stretch/compression; if a < 0, also
y = af(x)
reflect across the x-axis

Memory rule: Outside the function, the sign matches the vertical direction; inside the
function, the sign is opposite the horizontal direction.

If the original graph passes through (2, 5):

 g(x) = f(x) + 3 passes through (2, 8).
 g(x) = f(x − 3) passes through (5, 5).
 g(x) = −f(x) passes through (2, −5).

7. Intersections and Systems

If y = f(x) and y = g(x) intersect, the x-coordinate of every intersection satisfies:

f(x) = g(x)
Therefore, graph-intersection questions are really equation or system-solving questions. Common
combinations include two lines, a line and a parabola, two nonlinear functions, and a graph with a
horizontal line y = k.
Example: f(x) = x² and g(x) = 2x + 3.

x² = 2x + 3
x² − 2x − 3 = 0
(x − 3)(x + 1) = 0
Thus, the x-coordinates are x = 3 and x = −1. If the question asks for the full intersection points,
substitute each x-value back into either function to find y.

8. Interpreting Parameters in Context

The SAT often asks you to explain the meaning of a constant, coefficient, or function value in a
real-world situation, not merely compute it.

H(t) = 1200 − 50t

 1200: the initial amount of water when t = 0.
 −50: the amount of water decreases by 50 units for each additional unit of time.
 H(4): the amount of water after 4 time units.
 H(t) = 0: the time when the tank becomes empty.
Strong response: State the numerical value, its units, and its real-world meaning. Do not
answer only “slope” or “initial value.”

9. Data and Function Models

A problem may provide a scatterplot, table, or real data and ask you to select, interpret, or use a
model.
 Decide whether a linear, quadratic, or exponential model is most appropriate.

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 Use the model to predict an output for a given input.
 Interpret slope, intercept, growth factor, or other parameters.
 Identify positive correlation, negative correlation, or no clear correlation.
 Compare observed values with predicted values.
 Understand residual: observed value − predicted value.
Data Pattern Likely Model
Approximately follows a straight line Linear
U-shaped, inverted U-shaped, or has one clear
Quadratic
turning point
Growth or decay accelerates over time Exponential

Remember: A model approximates a trend and does not need to pass through every data
point.

10. Domain and Range

The domain is the set of allowed inputs; the range is the set of possible outputs. On the SAT,
domain is often tested indirectly through denominators, radicals, and real-world restrictions.

10.1 A Denominator Cannot Equal Zero

f(x) = 1 / (x − 5) ⇒ x ≠ 5

10.2 An Even Root Cannot Have a Negative Radicand

f(x) = √(2x − 6)
2x − 6 ≥ 0 ⇒ x ≥ 3

10.3 Restrictions from Context

 Time is usually nonnegative.
 A number of people is usually a nonnegative integer.
 Length, mass, and quantity are usually nonnegative.
 A model may be valid only over the time interval stated in the problem.

11. Common SAT Mistakes

1. Treating f(3) as f × 3.
2. Confusing f(x) = 5 with f(5).
3. Reversing the direction of a horizontal graph shift.
4. Confusing the y-intercept with a zero or x-intercept.
5. Confusing an exponential growth rate with its growth factor.
6. Checking only differences in a table and never checking ratios.
7. Reading the vertex of a(x − h)² + k as (−h, k) instead of (h, k).
8. Reading the zero from the factor (x − r) as −r instead of r.
9. Finding only one solution when two functions intersect twice.
10. Ignoring domain restrictions caused by denominators, radicals, or context.
Final check: Before moving on, ask: Is the question asking for an input or an output? Does the

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expression reveal an intercept, a zero, or a vertex? Is the answer valid in the domain and
context?

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