Module 4: (12 Hours)

Computer Networks and IPR:

 Network of computers- Types of networks, Intranet and Internet.

 Internet applications- World wide web, E-mail, browsing and searching, search
engines, multimedia applications
 Communication Concepts- networking devices, SIM, GPRS, CDMA, GPS, GSM.
 Introduction to Open Source, IPR – Patents and Copyrights.

Introduction:
A computer network is a group of computers connected to each other that enables the
computer to communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and
applications.
Computer Networks are used for:

 Communicating using email, video, instant messaging and other methods.

 Sharing devices such as printers, scanners and photocopiers

 Sharing files

 Sharing software and operating programs on remote systems

 Allowing network users to easily access and maintain information

Types of Networks:
A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly of four
types:

o LAN(Local Area Network)

o PAN(Personal Area Network)
o MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o WAN(Wide Area Network)
Personal Area Network (PAN):

The smallest and most basic type of network, a PAN is made up of a wireless modem, a computer or
two, phones, printers, tablets, etc., and revolves around one person in one building. These types of
networks are typically found in small offices or residences, and are managed by one person or
organization from a single device.

Local Area Network (LAN):

LANs – one of the most common, one of the most original and one of the simplest types of
networks. LANs connect groups of computers and low-voltage devices together across short distances
(within a building or between a group of two or three buildings in close proximity to each other) to
share information and resources. Enterprises typically manage and maintain LANs.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):

These types of networks are larger than LANs but smaller than WANs – and incorporate elements from
both types of networks. MANs span an entire geographic area (typically a town or city, but sometimes
a campus). Ownership and maintenance is handled by either a single person or company (a local
council, a large company, etc.).

Wide Area Network (WAN):

Slightly more complex than a LAN, a WAN connects computers together across longer physical
distances. This allows computers and low-voltage devices to be remotely connected to each other
over one large network to communicate even when they’re miles apart.

The Internet is the most basic example of a WAN, connecting all computers together around the world.
Because of a WAN’s vast reach, it is typically owned and maintained by multiple administrators or the
public.

Intranet and Internet:

BASIS FOR COMPARISON INTERNET INTRANET

Meaning Connects different network of It is a part of Internet which is

computers together privately owned by a particular
firm
Accessibility Anyone can access the Internet Accessible only by the
organization members, having
login details.

Safety Is not as safe as compared to Safe

Intranet

No of Users Unlimited Limited

Visitors Traffic More Less

Network Type Public Private

Information Provided Unlimited, and can be viewed by Limited, and circulates among
everyone the members of an organization

Intranet is defined as private network of computers within an organization with its own
server and firewall.
Intranet is system in which multiple PCs are networked to be connected to each other. PCs
in intranet are not available to the world outside of the intranet.
Usually each company or organization has their own Intranet network and
members/employees of that company can access the computers in their intranet.
Internet
Internet is defined as an Information super Highway, to access information over the web.
A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is used to give name to the IP Address so
that user can locate a computer by a name.
For example, a DNS server will resolve a name [Link] to a particular IP
address to uniquely identify the computer on which this website is hosted.
Internet is accessible to every user all over the world.

Internet applications:

E-Mail:

Electronic mail is the method of exchanging digital messages from one person to one or more
persons. Email operates across the internet or other computer networks.

Email is an electronic mail for sending, receiving and storing of our electronic messages. Email
has gained popularity with the speed of the internet. Today, email is the preferred method of
communication.

The email system is based on store and forward model in which email server computer system
accepts, forwards, delivers and stores the messages on behalf of users to send and receive
email messages.

Email consists of two parts:

 The message header

  The message body

The header contains the information like one or more sender’s address, subject, etc whereas
the body part contains the actual message which the sender has sent to the receiver.

It is one of the most frequently used features of the internet. Many people sign up for internet
services so that they can send and receive e-mail messages. The internet is now the world’s
largest electronic mail system. More than 30 million people are directly connected to the
internet and can send and receive electronic mails.

World Wide Web:

The World Wide Web (WWW), commonly known as the Web, the leading information
retrieval service of the Internet (the worldwide computer network).

The Web gives users access to a vast array of documents that are connected to each other
by means of hypertext or hypermedia links—i.e., hyperlinks, electronic connections that link
related pieces of information in order to allow a user easy access to them.

Hypertext allows the user to select a word or phrase from text and thereby access other
documents that contain additional information pertaining to that word or phrase.

A hypertext document with its corresponding text and hyperlinks is written in Hyper Text
Markup Language (HTML) and is assigned an online address called a Uniform Resource
Locator (URL).

Hypermedia documents feature links to images, sounds, animations, and movies.

The Web operates within the Internet’s basic client- Server format; servers are computer
programs that store and transmit documents to other computers on the network when
asked to, while clients are programs that request documents from a server as the user asks
for them.
Browser software allows users to view the retrieved documents.
The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) is the main international standards
organization for the World Wide Web. Founded in 1994 and currently led by Tim Berners-
Lee.
It is an international organization committed to improving the web. It is made up of several
hundred member organizations from a variety of related IT industries.
W3C sets standards for the World Wide Web (WWW) to facilitate interoperability and
cooperation among all web stakeholders.
The primary international standards organization for the web, the World Wide Web
Consortium is dedicated to bringing together interested parties from different IT sectors to
work on web issues.
Its mission includes “developing protocols and guidelines that ensure the long-term growth
of the web.”

Browsing:
Browsing is commonly used to describe when a user reads through pages on
the Internet and is also often referred to as surfing. For example, you are browsing the
Internet with an Internet browser
Browsing is the act of looking through a set of information quickly, without a specific sense
of purpose. In the context of the internet, it usually refers to using the world wide web.

Searching:
Searching which means to search the World Wide Web in a systematic way for particular
information specified in a textual web search query.
The search results are generally presented in a line of results, often referred to as search
engine results pages.
The information may be a mix of links to web pages, images, videos, infographics, articles,
research papers, and other types of files.
An internet search, otherwise known as a search query, is an entry into a search engine that
yields both paid and organic results. The paid results are the ads that appear at the top and
the bottom of the page, and they are marked accordingly. The organic results are the
unmarked results that appear in between the ads.

Search Engine:
A web search engine or Internet search engine is a software system that is designed to carry
out web search (Internet search).
A search engine is an online tool that searches for results in its database based on the
search query (keyword) submitted by the internet user.
The results are usually websites that semantically match with the search query.
Search engines find the results in their database, sort them and make an ordered list of
these results based on the search algorithm.
This list is generally called the search engine results page.
There are many search engines on the market, while the most widely used is Google.
Many website browsers such as Chrome, Firefox, Safari or Edge usually come with a default
search engine set as a home page or starting page.
The search engine then looks through its index for relevant websites and displays them in
the form of a list.
The search engine’s internal evaluation algorithm determines which position a website will
get in the search results.

Communication Concepts:
Networking Devices:
Hardware devices that are used to connect computers, printers, fax machines and other
electronic devices to a network are called network devices.
These devices transfer data in a fast, secure and correct way over same or different
networks.
Network devices may be inter-network or intra-network.
Modem can be categorized in several ways like direction in which it can transmit data, type
of connection to the transmission line, transmission mode, etc.
Depending on direction of data transmission, modem can be of these types:
Simplex − A simplex modem can transfer data in only one direction, from digital device to
network (modulator) or network to digital device (demodulator), Example radio
broadcasting, television broadcasting, computer to printer communication, and keyboard to
computer connections

Half duplex − A half-duplex modem has the capacity to transfer data in both the directions
but only one at a time, Example walkie-talkie.

Full duplex − A full duplex modem can transmit data in both the directions simultaneously,
example telephone.
SIM:
A subscriber identity module or subscriber identification module (SIM), widely known as
a SIM card,

SIM is a portable chip and built-in circuit that stores the international mobile subscriber
identity (IMSI) in a strong, safe way, and its related key, which are used to identify and
authenticate subscribers on mobile telephony devices.
It is a smart memory card that enables us to establish a phone call across the globe where
the contact network of the user is constant.
SIM is generally used on smartphone-operated and controlled GSM networks. It is movable
and can be used by a user with any mobile device that supports this.
The first SIM card was established in 1991 by Devrient and Munich smart-card maker
Giesecke.
The SIM was initially recognized and declared by the European Telecommunication
Standards Institute (ETSI).
Function of SIM Card

SIM card stores a lot of information and also brings essential pieces of data back and forth
to the network of customers and holds some of their private and personal data as well.
The list of information stored by SIM is

 Address details
 Text messages
 Personal security keys
 Phone number
 Data regarding network authorization.
 Other data.
A few crucial data carried by SIM are:

 IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity)

 Unique serial number
 Security information
 Brief details related to the local network.
Size of the SIM:

When SIM was first produced in the beginning the size of nearly the credit card, but the
later size of the SIM eventually disclosed gives a capacity of 15 mm by 12 mm.
Some smartphones now use distinct sizes of nano and micro - SIM chips.

GPRS:
The full form of GPRS is General Packet Radio Service.
The GPRS is a non-voice high-speed packet switching system developed for GSM networks.
GPRS is a packet-aligned, wireless communication service that transmits a mobile signal on 3
G and 2 G cellular transmission networks.
GPRS works based on the technique of modulation, also called GMSK (Gaussian Minimum
Shift Keying).
To allow GPRS to be deployed on a TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) or GSM (Global
System for Mobile Communications) or network, we must have two main modules that are
named as

 GGSN (Gateway GPRS Service Node)

 SGSN (Serving GPRS Service Node)
GPRS can be used to communicate using internet protocols that support a wide range of
companies as well as industrial applications.
Requirements to use GPRS
Due to the more advanced infrastructure than traditional 2 G wireless technology, GPRS is
considered as 2.5 G technology, but it does not satisfy the need for 3 G developments.
A service that includes GPRS modem.
A network of GSM / GPRS.
A GPRS-aided SIM card.
A remote location that has internet connectivity or a GPRS network.
Benefits of GPRS
GPRS gives higher speed of data transfer compared with fixed telecommunication networks.
Its prime speed is 171.2 kbps, almost three times the speed of set-telecommunications.
It provides immediate fast communication and quick transfer of information.
GPRS is highly cost efficient.
GPRS applications are unique and of high standard. It offers web apps over mobile phones
and also makes web surfing, IM messages, e-commerce and so on simpler.
It allows people to connect to the web even when other service providers, including 3 G or
HSDPA, are not accessible.
CDMA:
The full form of CDMA is Code Division Multiple Access.
Code Division Multiple Access is a channel access method used by several radio
communication technologies. It is a digital cellular technology and an example of multiple
access. It is generally used for mobile communication.

Multiple access means that several transmitters can send information simultaneously over a
single communication channel. In this system, different CDMA codes are assigned to
different users and the user can access the whole bandwidth for the entire duration. It
optimizes the use of available bandwidth as it transmits over the entire frequency range and
does not limit the user's frequency range.

Thus, CDMA allows several users to share a band of frequencies without undue interference
between the users. It is used as a access method in many mobile phone standards.

Along with ADC (analogue to digital conversion), CDMA enables the use of spectrum
technology.

Features of CDMA

At a defined time, it enables more users to communicate and thus offers enhanced capacity
for voice and data communication.

Many of the channels in CDMA use a complete spectrum.

To reduce interference & noise and thereby increase the efficiency of the network, CDMA
systems make use of power control.

To protect its signals, CDMA encodes user transmissions into separate and special codes.

The same frequency can also be used by all cells in CDMA systems.

There is also no fixed limit to the number of participants in a CDMA system, but
performance degrades with an increment in the number of participants.

Applications of CDMA

CDMA is used in the GPS (Global Positioning System)

Several cell phone firms use this technology

The UTMS 3 G cell phone standard uses W-CDMA.

CDMA was used in the OmniTRACS transportation satellite system.

GPS:

GPS stands for Global Positioning System.

It is a satellite based navigation system which allows ground users to determine their exact
location, velocity, and time 24 hours a day, in all weather conditions, all over the world.

It is maintained and developed by the U.S. Department of Defence, and was basically
designed to assist soldiers and military vehicles but after some decades it made accessible
to anyone having a GPS receiver.

It is widely used to track vehicles and follow the best route from one place to another place
by Airlines, shipping firms, courier companies, drivers etc.

The first GPS was developed in the 1960s to assist the ships of US Navy in navigating the
oceans more accurately.

The first system started with five satellites which enabled ships to check their location once
every hour.

Various Parts of GPS

Parts can be broken up into three separate segments, such as

A segment of space – It is referred to as satellites. In six orbital planes, roughly 24 satellites

are distributed.

A segment of control- It is referred to stations installed on Earth to manage and track the
satellites.

User Segment – It is referred to users who process the navigation signals received from the
GPS satellites to measure position and time.

Working Principle of GPS

The GPS network comprises 24 satellites that are deployed approximately 19,300 kilometres
above the Earth’s surface. They circle the Earth at an incredibly fast speed of around 11,200
km / h (once every 12 hours). The satellites are evenly spaced so that four satellites can be
seen with a clear line of sight from anywhere in the globe.

Each satellite is fitted with a computer, radio and an atomic clock. With knowledge of its
orbit and the clock, it constantly transmits its shifting place and time.

GPS makes use of the triangulation method to identify the user’s location. Triangulation is a
mechanism in which a GPS first establishes a working and receiving information link with 3
to 4 satellites. The satellite then transmits one piece of message information, including the
receiver‘s location.

If the receiver already has a computer screen showing a map, then the position can be
shown on the monitor.
If a fourth satellite can be accessed, the receiver may measure both the altitude and the
geographical position.

Your receiver will also calculate your travel speed and direction if you are travelling and give
you approximate arrival times to specific locations.
Applications of GPS
The GPS is used in technology to provide data that has never been available before, with the
amount and degree of precision that the GPS makes possible. Researchers use the GPS to
measure the change in the arctic ice shift, Earth’s tectonic plates and volcanic activity.
GPS gives the exact location.
To track a person or object movement.
It helps the creation of World maps.
It affords the universe a precise timing.
During travel from one location to the other.
GSM:
The full form of GSM is the Global System for Mobile Communication. GSM established by
the ETSI (European Telecommunication Standards Institute) to define protocols for 2 G
networks. It operated as a substitute for the 1G cellular networks.
GSM is essentially a digital, open cellular radio network and functions in nearly every
country. GSM is used not just for voice calls but for data storage and messages.
Characteristics of GSM
For signal transmission, GSM is using the Narrowband TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
methods.
GSM is a circuit-switching program which works by splitting every 200 kHz channel into eight
25 kHz time-slots.
In most regions of the world, GSM operates on the mobile communication bands of the
frequency of 900 MHz and 1800 MHz.
The three frequencies primarily implement the GSM system.
900 MHz – Used with original GSM.
1800 MHz – Used to assist the enhanced subscriber growth.
1900 MHz – Used mainly in the US.
Open Source:
Open source is a term that originally referred to open source software (OSS). Open source
software is code that is designed to be publicly accessible—anyone can see, modify, and
distribute the code as they see fit.
Open source software is developed in a decentralized and collaborative way, relying on peer
review and community production. Open source software is often cheaper, more flexible,
and has more longevity than its proprietary peers because it is developed by communities
rather than a single author or company.
Open source has become a movement and a way of working that reaches beyond software
production. The open source movement uses the values and decentralized production
model of open source software to find new ways to solve problems in their communities
and industries.
Open source software is released through a specific kind of license that makes its source
code legally available to end-users. There are many such licenses, but typically software is
considered open source if:
It is available in source code form without additional cost, meaning users can view the code
that comprises the software and make any kind of changes to it they want.
The source code can be repurposed into other new software, meaning anyone can take the
source code and distribute their own program from it.
Is open source software free?
Open source software does not necessarily mean that executable software is given away for
free. It does, however, mean that its source code is available for free.

IPR:
Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) are the rights given to persons over the creations of their minds.
They usually give the creator an exclusive right over the use of his/her creation for a certain period
of time.

The term "Intellectual Property Rights" refers to the legal rights granted with the aim to
protect the creations of the intellect.
These rights include Industrial Property Rights (e.g. patents, industrial designs and
trademarks) and
Copyright (right of the author or creator) and Related Rights (rights of the performers,
producers and broadcasting organisations).
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) defines Intellectual Property (IP) as the
creations of the mind: inventions, literary and artistic works, and symbols, names, images,
and designs, used in commerce.
IPR Vs Physical Property
Intellectual Property (IP)
These rights cover the permissions that we have with regard to physical objects, and they’re
fairly clear to us.
Intellectual property is the term for products of the intellect that can be owned in some
sense. Some common examples are copyright and patents which give property rights to the
originators over things like ideas which have been made public.
Intellectual property is different from physical property. The “thing” that one has a right to
is an idea rather than something physical like a car.
A company might own the patent to a vehicle’s design without being able to claim a
property right to each individual car of that type. This seems sensible, but it doesn’t match
the sort of property claim that we’re used to talking about. When I claim a property right to
my car, it means you can’t use it. What does it mean to say that you can’t use my idea? In
most cases, this means that one cannot use an idea that someone else has a copyright to in
a way that creates profits. To do so would deprive the copyright holder of something they
are due.

Patent:
A patent is "an intellectual property right relating to inventions and is the grant of exclusive
right, for limited period, provided by the government to the patentee, in exchange of full
disclosure of his invention, for excluding other, from making, using, selling, importing the
patented product or process producing that product for those purposes.“
Examples:
Telephone, radio, optical fibre, ipod, ballpoint pens, etc
Conditions for grant of patent:
Novelty
Non- obvious
Useful
Novelty (Newness) Requirement:
In order for an invention to be patentable, the invention must be considered to be new or
novel.
This novelty requirement states that an invention cannot be patented if certain public
disclosures of the invention have been made.
The most important rule, however, is that an invention will not normally be patentable if:

 The invention was known to the public before the applicant filed for patent
protection;
 The invention was described in a printed publication before the applicant filed for
patent protection; or
 The invention was described in a published patent application or issued patent that
was filed before the applicant filed for patent protection.
Therefore, it is almost always preferable to file a patent application before any public
disclosure of the invention. Most patent attorneys will try diligently to file a patent
application prior to any public release or announcement in order to allow international
patent filings.
Useful Requirement:
The patent law specifies that the subject matter must be "useful." This means that the
invention must have a useful purpose. In most cases, the usefulness requirement is easily
met in the context of computer and electronic technologies. The requirement is more
important when attempting to patent a pharmaceutical or chemical compound, as it is
necessary to specify a practical or specific utility for the new compound.
Some more examples of Patents:

Inventions protected by utility patents include any new and useful process, machine,
manufacture, or composition of matter. Inventions can be electrical, mechanical, or
chemical in nature. Examples of inventions protected by utility patents are a microwave
oven, genetically engineered bacteria for cleaning up oil spills, a computerized method of
running cash management accounts, and a method for curing rubber.

Internet-related inventions protected by utility patents include communications protocols,

data compression techniques, interfaces, networking methods, encryption techniques,
interfaces, online payment systems, and information processing and retrieval technologies.
In the area of e-commerce, patentable inventions and processes include electronic postage,
electronic cash, and e-commerce business methods.

Examples of manufactured articles protected by design patents are a design for the sole of
running shoes, a design for sterling silver tableware, and a design for a water fountain.

Duration of Patent:
A utility patent, is generally granted for 20 years from the date the patent application is
filed; however, periodic fees are required to maintain the enforceability of the patent.
A design patent is generally granted protection for 14 years measured from the date the
design patent is granted.

Patent Process:

Copyrights:
The copyright was originally started by government machinery to restrict public from
publishing certain documents.
Copyright refers to the legal right of the owner of intellectual property. In simpler terms,
copyright is the right to copy. This means that the original creators of products and anyone
they give authorization to are the only ones with the exclusive right to reproduce the work.

Copyright law gives creators of original material the exclusive right to further use and
duplicate that material for a given amount of time, at which point the copyrighted item
becomes public domain.
Copyright provides protection to the expression of the idea as envisaged under the
Copyright Act, 1957. As per Section 13 of the Copyright Act, 1957 " the copyright subsist in
the following classes of work:

 Literary, Dramatic, Musical and Artistic works

 Cinematography films and
 Sound Recording.
Basically, a copyright is the right to copy or reproduce the work in which the copyright
subsists. The exclusive right for doing the respective acts extends not only to the whole of
the work but to any substantial part thereof or to any translation or adaptation thereof,
where applicable. The term period of a copyright is the life of the author of the work plus
sixty years with certain exceptions.
Copyrights Office Boards:

Copyright Process:
How Copyrighting Works
When someone creates a product that is viewed as original and that required significant
mental activity to create, this product becomes an intellectual property that must be
protected from unauthorized duplication. Examples of unique creations include computer
software, art, poetry, graphic designs, musical lyrics and compositions, novels, film, original
architectural designs, website content, etc. One safeguard that can be used to legally
protect an original creation is copyright.
Under copyright law, a work is considered original if the author created it from independent
thinking void of duplication. This type of work is known as an Original Work of Authorship
(OWA). Anyone with an original work of authorship automatically has the copyright to that
work, preventing anyone else from using or replicating it. The copyright can be registered
voluntarily by the original owner if they would like to get an upper hand in the legal system
in the event that the need arises.
Not all types of work can be copyrighted. A copyright does not protect ideas, discoveries,
concepts, or theories. Brand names, logos, slogans, domain names, and titles also cannot be
protected under copyright law. For an original work to be copyrighted, it has to be in
tangible form. This means that any speech, discoveries, musical scores, or ideas have to be
written down in physical form in order to be protected by copyright.
In the U.S., original owners are protected by copyright laws all of their lives until 70 years
after their death. If the original author of the copyrighted material is a corporation, the
copyright protection period will be shorter.
Copyright protection varies from country to country, and can stand for 50 to 100 years after
the individual’s death, depending on the country.