Tutorial 1: Quantization of energy and matter

1. Calculate the energy of an electron in the He+ as it orbit around the third electronic
shell (n=3). Hint: Use the equation, E = - RH/n2 where R = 2.179 x 10-18J
E = - RH/n2
= -(2.179×10-18 ) / (32)
= -2.421×10-19 J

2. (a) How many possible values for l and ml are there when n=3
𝑛 𝑙 𝑚𝑙
0 0
3 1 -1, 0, +1
2 -2, -1, 0, +1, +2

(b) Give the values for n, l and ml for

(a) each orbital in the 2p subshell
𝑛=2
𝑙=1
𝑚𝑙 = −1, 0, +1
(b) each orbital in the 5d subshell
𝑛=5
𝑙=2
𝑚𝑙 = −2, −1, 0, +1, +2

3. The average distance from the nucleus of a 3s electron in a chlorine atom is smaller
than that for a 3p electron. In the light of this fact,

(a) Which orbital is higher in energy?

3p orbital is higher in energy.

(b) Would you expect it to require more or less energy to remove a 3s electron from
the chlorine atom as compared with a 2p electron? Briefly explain
 It requires less energy to remove a 3s electron from the chlorine atom as compared with
a 2p electron since the average distance between the nucleus and the 3s electron is
greater, the attraction (shielding effect) reduces. Therefore, 3s electron needs low
energy to be ionised.

4. Identify the following statement as true or false about the angular momentum
quantum number l?

(i). It is a wave function (true)

(ii) It describes the shape of the electron cloud in an atom (true)
(iii). For a multi-electron atom, the energy of s and p orbital are not the same for
subshells with the same principal quantum number (true)
(iv). For a He+ ion, the energy of the s and p orbital will be the same for subshells with
the same principal quantum number (false)
(v). It can specify both the shape and orientation of the electron in an atom (false)

5. Which of this electronic transition corresponds to absorption of energy and which

to emission?

(i) n=2 to n=4 (absorption of energy)

(ii) n=3 to n=1 (emission of energy)
(iii) n=5 to n=2 (emission of energy)
(iv) n=3 to n= 4 (absorption of energy)

6. According to Bohr, the energy of the electron in the shell as it orbit around the
nucleus is given by: E= - RH / n2
Where RH is the Rydberg constant; n = principal quantum numbers I, 2, 3, etc
RH = 2.179 x 10-18J; h = 6.63 x 10-34J.s; c = 3.0 x 108ms-1

Use the above equation to calculate:

(i) The energy difference for the transition in a hydrogen atom from the principal
quantum n= 5 to n=2
E = -Rh (1/52 - 1/22)
= -2.179×10-18 (1/25 – 1/4)
 = -4.576×10-19 J
(ii) The wavelength in nanometre (nm) of the photon emitted during the transition
h c/λ = E
(6.63×10-34×3×108) /λ = -4.576×10-19
λ = 4.347×10-7 m
λ = 435 nm

7. Which of the following electronic transition is not associated with the Balmer
series?
(i) It involves absorption spectra
(ii) It involves electronic jump from n > 5 to n = 1
(iii) It involves line spectra
(iv) It involves emission spectra
(v) It involves electronic jump from n> 4 to n=2

ANS: (i) It involves emission spectra

(ii) It involves electronic jump from n > 5 to n = 2

8. Are the following quantum number combinations allowed? If not, show ways to
correct them.
(a) n=2; l = 0; ml= -1 (not allowed) → Correct: n=2; l = 0; ml= 0
(b) n=4; l=3, ml= -1 (allowed)
(c) n=3, l=1, ml= 0 (allowed)
(d) n=5, l=2; ml= +3 (not allowed) → Correct: n=5, l=2; ml= -2, -1, 0, +1 or +2

9. What is the maximum number of electrons in an atom that can have the following
quantum numbers?
(a) n=2, ms= -½ (maximum 4 electrons)
(b) n=5, l=3 (maximum 14 electrons)
(c) n=4, l=3, ml=-3 (maximum 2 electrons)
(d) n=4, l=1, ml=1 (maximum 2 electrons)

10. (a) What is wrong with the following electron configuration for atoms in their
ground state? Correct the error where applicable.
 (a) 1s22s23p1 (Correct: 1s22s22p1)
(b) 1s22s22p63d2 (Correct: 1s22s22p63s2)
(c) 1s22s22p63s33p4 (Correct: 1s22s22p63s23p5)
(d) 1s2 2s22p33s3p64s23d2 (Correct: 1s22s22p63s23p5)

(b) What will be the total number of subshells and electrons in an atom with the
principal quantum number n=4?
• Total 4 subshells and 32 electrons.

11. For each set of quantum numbers write the symbol of the subshell to which the set
corresponds (eg. 3s,2p) if valid.
(n, l, m)
• (3, 1, 0): 3p subshell
• (2, 1, 2): 2p subshell
• (3, 0, 0): 3s subshell
• (4, 2, 3): 4d subshell
• (3, 2, 2): 3d subshell

12. (a) What is the valence electron configuration of the group 6A elements of the
periodic table? ns2np6

(b) What family of elements has the ns2np3 electron configuration? Group 5A

13. One of the spectral lines of hydrogen in the Lyman series has a wavelength of 280
nm Calculate the energy of one photon of this light.
(h = 6.63 x 10-34 Js; c = 3 x 1010cm s-1).
E = h c/ λ
= (6.63×10-34×3×108) / (280×10-9)
= 7.104×10-19 J

14. State Pauli’s exclusion principle.

 Pauli’s exclusion principle elucidates that there are no two electrons in an atom can
have the same four quantum numbers and maximum two electrons per orbital only.

Use the rule to give the n, l, ml and ms values of

(i) the two electrons in the p-orbital of a carbon atom.
𝑛=2
𝑙=1
𝑚𝑙 = −1, 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 + 1
1 1
𝑚𝑠 = + 𝑜𝑟 −
2 2
(ii) the unpaired electrons in an oxygen atom that are drawn based on the Hund’s
rule
𝑛=2
𝑙=1
𝑚𝑙 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 + 1
1 1
𝑚𝑠 = + 𝑜𝑟 −
2 2
(iii) the valence electrons in a magnesium atom.
𝑛=3
𝑙=0
𝑚𝑙 = 0
1 1
𝑚𝑠 = + 𝑜𝑟 −
2 2

15. (a). State the Hund’s rule. Illustrate the rule using phosphorous as an example.
Hund’s rule elucidates that the most stable arrangement for electrons in orbitals of
equal energy is where the number of electrons with the same spin is maximized.

Electron configuration of phosphorous: 1s22s²2p⁶3s²3p³

↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑↓ ↑ ↑ ↑
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p

(b). Which of the following atoms Nitrogen and Phosphorous is bigger? why?
 Phosphorous is bigger in size as compared to nitrogen. Both atoms are group 5A
elements, nitrogen (atomic number 7) is from period 2 whereas phosphorus (atomic
number15) is from period 3. The larger the n value, the greater the average distance
from the nucleus, the greater the atomic radius. Therefore, the atomic radius increases
from top to bottom across the group from the periodic table.

16. Give (i) two differences and (ii) similarities between the Quantum mechanical
model and the Bohr model of an atom
Both models describe the location of electrons in an atom and the nature properties of
electrons. Quantum mechanical model treats electrons as wave. The location of
electrons describes by four quantum numbers, they are n, l, ml and ms. On the other
hand, Bohr model treats electrons as particles, electrons move around the nucleus of an
atom in fixed orbits. The location of electrons describes by specific energy level
labelled by n.
 Tutorial 2: Basic spectrophotometry

1. (a) In what ways are infra-red radiation and ultraviolet radiation different? In what
ways are they the same?
The major differences between infra-red radiation and ultraviolet radiation are their
frequency, wavelength, and energy. IR radiation has a greater wavelength range than
UV radiation, approximately 780 nm to 1mm, whereas UV radiation has the range from
100 nm to 380 nm. Both are electromagnetic radiation and both travels with the speed
of light. Both can travel in vacuum as well.

(b) Consider the following types of electromagnetic radiation:

Microwave, Ultra-violet, Radio –waves, Infra-red, Visible, X-rays
(i) Arrange them in order of increasing frequency
Radio –waves, Microwave, Infra-red, Visible, Ultra-violet, X-rays

(ii) Arrange them in order of increasing wavelength

X-rays, Ultra-violet, Visible, Infra-red, Microwave, Radio –waves

(iii) Arrange them in order of increasing energy

Radio –waves, Microwave, Infra-red, Visible, Ultra-violet, X-rays

2. Which of the following is not a characteristic of the electromagnetic spectrum?

(i). All electromagnetic radiation travel with the speed of light
(ii). Radiations in different regions of the spectrum have different wavelength
(iii) .Radiation in different regions of the spectrum have different energies
(iv) All electromagnetic radiation vibrates with the same frequency (not)

3. Rank the following photons in terms of increasing energy

(i) blue (λ = 453 nm) (ii) red (λ= 660 nm) (iii) yellow (λ = 595 nm).
• Red, yellow, blue

4. The energy difference between E1 and E3 of a Li2+ is 5.0 x 10-22J. (h = 6.63 x 10-34Js, c =
3x 1010cm s-1). Calculate the
 (i) wavelength in nanometers
E = h c/ λ
5×10-22 = (6.63×10-34×3×108) / λ
λ = 3.978×10-4 m
λ = 3.978×105 nm

(ii) wavenumber in cm-1

λ -1 = (3.978×10-2) -1
= 25.138 cm-1

(iii) frequency in Hertz, of the radiation that would be absorbed in exciting the
electron from the lower – higher energy level.
v = c/ λ
= (3×108) / (3.978×10-4)
= 7.541×1011 Hz

5. A 5.0 x 10-5 M solution of CuSO4 has a transmittance of 55 % when measured in a 2.50

cm cell at a wavelength of 700 nm. Calculate:
(a). the absorbance of this solution to four significant figures
A = -log (%T / 100)
= -log (55/100)
= 0.2596

(b). the molar absorptivity of CuSO4. to two significant figures.

A = 𝜀𝑏𝑐
0.2596 = 𝜀×2.5×5×10-5
𝜺 = 2.077×103 L/mole-cm

6. A 0.05 g of a certain transition metal compound was reacted with 1, 10 phenanthroline

to form a deep purple complex of Iron II phenanthroline [Fe(phen)2] in a total solution
volume of 250 ml. The absorbance of the deep purple complex after measurement in a
colorimeter in a 2.0cm cuvette was 0.45 at a maximum wavelength of absorption of
510nm.
[[Link] Fe = 56; 1, 10-phenanthroline (C12H8N2), C = 12; H = 1; N = 14]
ε of Fe(phen)2 = 1.1 x 103 M-1cm-1 at 510nm

(i) What is the concentration of the deep purple complex?

A = 𝜀𝑏𝑐
0.45 = 1.1×103×2× C
C = 2.045×10-4 M

(ii) Find the number of moles of the complex in the 250 ml solution volume.
C=n/V
2.045×10-4 = n / 250×10-3
n = 5.113×10-5 mol

(iii) What % of the Iron II phenanthroline complex is formed from the transition
metal compound.
n =m/M
5.113×10-5 = m / {56+ 2[12(12) +8 +2(14)]}
m = 0.02127 g
% of the Iron II phenanthroline complex = 0.02127/0.05 ×100 %
= 42.54 %

(iv) What is the % transmittance of the purple complex?

A = -log (%T /100)
%T /100 = 10-A
%T = 10-0.45 ×100
%T = 35.48 %

7. What is the main difference between the absorption spectrum of gaseous Cu and that
of a solution of copper sulphate?
The main difference between the absorption spectrum of gaseous Cu and that of a
solution of copper sulphate is that the aqueous sample of the analyte is first converted
into gaseous atoms using thermal energy. The atomized samples are irradiated by a
discharge tube using the metal under investigation as the source of radiation.
8. An AM station broadcast classical music at 960 kilohertz (kHz), find the wavelength of
the station’s radio-waves in (i) meters (m), (ii) centimeters (cm), (iii) nanometers (nm).
Speed of light c = 3.0 x 108 m/s; 1Hz = 1s-1
λ=c/v
= (3×108) / (960×103)
= 312.5 m (i)
= 3.125×104 cm (ii)
= 3.125×1011 nm (iii)

9. Give two similarities and differences between atomic absorption and molecular
absorption spectroscopy.
Both spectroscopies use the principle of electronic transition to measure the
concentration of an unknown analyte in a sample, the relevant electromagnetic radiation
required falls in UV-Visible region. Gases atoms give distinct line spectra of specific
energy since there are no vibrational or rotational transitions during electronic transition
and the line spectra serve as a fingerprint for the qualitative identification of each
element. In contrast, molecules or compounds in the solution undergo vibrational or
rotational transition in quantized energy levels due to the presence of covalent bonds.

10. Give the type of transition involve in Ultra-violet, visible, infra-red and nuclear
magnetic resonance spectroscopy.
• UV spectroscopy : electron transitions
• Visible spectroscopy : electron transitions
• IR spectroscopy : molecular transitions
• NMR spectroscopy : nuclear transitions
 Tutorial 3: Organic Chemistry
Lewis structure and naming of alkenes

1. Draw the best Lewis Dot Structure for each of the following species.
a) BeF2

b) BCl3

c) CCl4

d) PBr5
e) SI6

2. Draw the Lewis dot structure for each of the following polyatomic ions:

a) NH4+
b) PO4–3
c) NO3–
d) CO32–

3. Draw and name the cis and trans condensed structure of:

Trans-pent-2-ene Cis-pent-2-ene
4. Name the following alkenes (include cis- or trans- for the alkenes that when appropriate)

a) pent-1-ene
b) hep-1-ene
c) 7-methyloct-3-ene
d) Cis-2-butene
e) Trans-5-nonene
f) cis-3-Heptene

5. Draw the line bond, condensed, and skeletal structure of the following alkenes:
a) 1-hexene
b) 4-isopropyl-2-methyl-1-nonene
c) cis-2-hexene
d) trans-2-pentene
e) cis-2-methyl-3-hexene

Line bond Condensed form Skeletal structure

1- CH2=CH(CH2)3CH3
hexene

4- CH2=C(CH3)CH2CH(CHCH
isopro 3CH3)(CH2)4CH3

pyl-2-
methyl
-1-
nonene
cis-2- CH3CH=CHCH2CH2CH3
hexene

trans- CH3CH=CHCH2CH3
2-
penten
e

cis-2- CH(CH3)2CH=CHCH2CH3
methyl
-3-
hexene
Sn1 and Sn2 Reactions

1. Which of the following best represents the carbon-chlorine bond of methyl chloride?

Ans: I

2. Provide a detailed, stepwise mechanism for the reaction below.

3. Rank the species below in order of increasing nucleophilicity in hydroxylic solvents:

CH3CO2- CH3S- HO- H2O

Ans: H2O < CH3CO2- < HO- < CH3S-

4. Give a stereochemical structure of the product from the reaction between (S)-2-iodopentane
and KCN in DMF (dimethyl formamide, a good polar solvent for ionic reagents).

5. Consider the reaction of (CH3)3CO- with iodomethane. Will the reaction rate increase,
decrease, or remain the same if the concentration of iodomethane is increased? Explain.

Ans: The reaction rate increase as in this SN2 substitution, the reaction between
(CH3)3CO- as strong nucleophile with iodomethane follows first order. So, the rate is
directly proportional to the concentration of reagents. As concentration of iodomethane
increase, rate of reaction increase.
rate = k[t-BuO−][CH3I]

6. Which of the following compounds will undergo an Sn2 reaction most readily?
a) (CH3)3CCH2I
b) (CH3)3CCl
c) (CH3)2CHI
d) (CH3)2CHCH2CH2CH2I
e) (CH3)2CHCH2CH2CH2Cl

Ans: d
7. What is the major organic product in the following reaction?

4-bromotoluene undergo SN2

8. t-butyl chloride undergoes solvolysis in 70% water/30% acetone at a rate slower than in 80%
water/20% acetone. Explain.
Ans: It is because the solvent is more polar when the percentage of water in the solvent
mixture is higher. The more polar the solvent, the more easily solvated the developing
carbocation so more rapidly the carbocation is formed. Solvent effect occurs.

9. Provide the major organic product of the reaction below and a detailed, stepwise mechanism
which accounts for its formation.
10. Provide the structure of the major organic products which result in the reaction below.

11. What combination of reactants would be best to prepare CH3OCH(CH3)2 by an Sn2

reaction?
Sodium propan-2-olate react with iodomethane

12. Which of the following alkyl halides is most likely to undergo rearrangement in an Sn1
reaction?
a) 3-bromopentane
b) 2-chloro-3,3-dimethylpentane
c) 3-chloropentane
d) bromocyclohexane
e) 1-bromo-4-methylcyclohexane

Ans: b

13. Which compound is most nucleophilic?

a) CH3SH
b) CH3OH
c) H2O
d) CH3CO2H
e) BF3
Ans: a
14. Which halide has the smallest dipole moment?
a) CH3F
b) CH3Cl
c) CH2I2
d) CH2Cl2
e) CF4
Ans: e

Give the major organic product of the reaction, paying particular attention to regio- and
stereochemical outcomes.
 Tutorial 4: Analytical Chemistry

1. Which of the following is the most appropriate analytical step to take in analysing an
analyte from a sample?
(i). Sample collection, sample preparation, identification of analyte, quantitation of analyte
(ii). Sample preparation, quantitation of analyte, identification of analyte, sample collection
(iii). Sample collection, identification of analyte, quantitation of analyte, sample preparation
(iv). Sample collection, sample preparation, quantitation of analyte, identification of analyte
(v). Identification of analyte, sample collection, sample preparation, quantitation of analyte

2. Describe the methods involved in quantitative analysis.

Gravimetric analysis, titrimetric, instrumental analysis
3. State the term precision and accuracy.
Precision: Describes the closeness or repeatability of a measurement that have obtained in
exactly the same way
Accuracy: Refers to the closeness of a measurement to true or expected value.
4. Describe the term
i) Selectivity: ability to capture the analyte of interred with as little interference as possible
ii) Specificity: is used to refer the analysis of an analyte with absolutely no interference or
contamination from any of the matrix component or reagent used
iii) Sensitivity: the ability to detect and measure small concentration of the analyte accurately

5. List the guide for choosing the right analytical method?

a) The nature if the analyte(s) to be determined: whether organic inorganic (cations or anions)
or colored complex compounds.
b) The physical state of sample: whether solid, liquid or gaseous.
c) The size of the sample to be analyzed.
d) the analyte(s) is/are major constituent (1-100%) in the sample; minor (0.01-1%); trace
(0.01% or 100pm-1ppb); ultra-trace (less than 1ppb)
e) Selective and sensitive method of analysis
f) Cost (budget) for the analysis and speed (how fast) the analysis is to be carried out
IR
The IR spectra (A – F) of the six compounds are provided on the following pages. Each of the
spectra is produced by one of 17 compounds that are shown below. Match each spectrum with
the correct compound.
Ans: Compound 7

Ans:Compound 2
Ans: Compound 10

Ans: Compound 8
Ans: Compound 15

Ans: Compound 17
 Tutorial 5: Mass Spectrometry

Look at the mass spectra of benzoic acid and identify the ions responsible for the major peaks
in each case.

m/z Ion responsible

122 C6H5COOH+
105 C6H5CO+
77 C6H5+
51 C4H3+

Solution:
C6H5COOH+ (122)
=(6x12) +(5x1) +(2x16) +1
=122

C6H5CO+ (105)
=(7x12) +(5x1) +(1x16)
=105

C6H5+ (77)
=(6x12) +(5x1)
=77

C4H3+(55)
=(4x12) +(3x1)
=51
 Tutorial 6: Polymer
1. Give the functional group of the monomer used in addition polymerization.
Double bonds

2. Give the functional groups of the monomers used in the formation of polyester and
polyamide.
Polyester
• Carboxyl
• Hydroxyl
Polyamide
• Carboxyl
• Amino

3. What is the difference between addition and condensation polymerization?

Addition polymerization is when monomers react to form a polymer without net loss of atoms.
However, in condensation polymerization, the polymer grows from monomers by splitting off
a small molecule such as H2O or CO2.

4. Show the various steps involve in the free radical addition polymerization of vinyl
chloride from initiation to termination.
5. What is the difference between high density polyethylene (HDPE) and low density
polyethylene (LDPE)?
LDPE is softer and more flexible than HDPE. LDPE is also more likely to crack under pressure.
This is because low-density polymers are branched polymers that cannot pack closely together.
Whereas, high-density polymers are linear polymers that can pack closely together.

6. Give the polymer repeat units in Poly (vinylchloride), Poly (propylene), and
Polystyrene.

7. What are biopolymers? Give two examples.

Biopolymers are natural polymers derived from the cells of living organisms.
 • Nucleic acid polymers
• Amino acids polymers

8. Briefly:
a). Compare the reaction condition (Tempt. & pressure) in high pressure polymerization
and polymerization using the Ziegler –Natta catalyst
High pressure polymerization is a free radical process using oxygen or other strong oxidizing
chemicals to initiate the reaction under high pressure. Ziegler-Natta catalyst is a type of catalyst
made from a mixture of chemical compounds that are mainly used in the synthesis of polymers.
High pressure polymerization must be performed at very high pressure and high temperature
to avoid de-mixing between the product molecules and molecules of the co-monomer.
However, Ziegler-Natta catalyst enables polymerization at atmospheric pressure and moderate
to low temperature producing a stronger product.

b). Describe the likely physico-chemical properties of Polystyrene produced by the two
different approach.
Atactic polystyrene, produced by the free radical polymerization of styrene, have phenyl
groups randomly distributed on both sides of the polymer chain. It has an irregular and
amorphous structure. Atactic polystyrene has no melting point but a transition to glass
temperature at 74-110 °C.
Ziegler-Natta catalyst polymerization produces a type of polystyrene called syndiotactic
polystyrene. Phenyl groups in the structure are placed on the alternating side of the hydrocarbon
backbone. Syndiotactic polystyrene is highly crystalline and has high heat resistance with a
melting point of 270 °C.
 Tutorial 7: Thermochemistry
1. Distinguish between the following systems and give an example of each:

a) Isolated system
An isolated system is a system that is not influenced by the surroundings
b) Closed system
A closed system is a system that may have transfer of energy with its surroundings
but no transfer of mass.
c) Open system
An open system is a system that may have transfer of both energy and mass with
its surroundings.

2. Determine whether the following processes comprise primarily heat (q) or work
(w). State whether ΔE is positive or negative for the system

d) Lungs expanding
Work (w)
Negative ΔE
e) Ice melting
Heat (q)
Positive ΔE

3. The combustion of 1.00 g of C2H6 (30.068 g/mol), at constant pressure releases 51.8
kJ of heat. What is the ΔH for the reaction below?
2C2H6 (g) + 7O2 (g) → 4CO2 (g) + 6H2O (l)
ΔH = -51.8 kJ

4. Calculate the ΔH when 50 g of sulfur trioxide (SO3; 80.06 g/mol) is produced

2SO2 (g) + O2(g) → 2SO3 (g) ΔHrxn = −198 kJ
ΔH = -99 kJ

5. A total of 2 g of sucrose (342.30 g/mol) was combusted in a calorimeter containing

1 L of water. The temperature of water was increased from 25 °C to 33.14 °C.
 Calculate the heat (in kJ) released by the combustion of 1 mole of sucrose. Specific
heat capacity of water is 4.18 J/g*K. (4 marks)
𝑞 = 𝑚 × 𝑐 × ∆𝑇
𝑞 = 1000 × 4.18 × 8.14
𝑞 = 34025.2𝐽
= 34.03 kJ

6. Given the following equation:

4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) → 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g) ΔH°rxn = −906 kJ/mol

Calculate the standard heat of formation (ΔH°f) of ammonia NH3.

The of ΔH°f the products and reactants are shown below.

NH3 ΔH°f = X kJ/mol

O2 ΔH°f = 0 kJ/mol

NO ΔH°f = 90.3 kJ/mol

H2O ΔH°f = −241.8 kJ/mol

ΣΔH°𝑓 {products} = ΔH°𝑓 {NO(g)} + ΔH°𝑓 {H2 O(g)}

= (4)(90.3) + (6)(−241.8)

= −1089.6 kJ/mol

ΣΔH°𝑓 {reactants} = ΔH°𝑓 {NH3 (g)} + ΔH°𝑓 {O2 (g)}

= (4)(𝑥) + (5)(0)

= 4𝑥 kJ/mol

ΔH°𝑟𝑥𝑛 = ΣΔH°𝑓 {products} − ΣΔH°𝑓 {reactants}

−906 = −1089.6 − 4𝑥

4𝑥 = −183.6

𝑥 = −45.9 kJ/mol

\ΔH°𝑓 {NH3 (g)} = −45.9 kJ/mol

 Tutorial 8: Transition Elements

1. a) What do you understand by the term ‘transition metal’?

Transition metals are defined in a couple of ways; elements that are found in the ‘d-block’ of
the periodic table and also a metal that forms one or more ions with an incompletely filled d
subshell. Transition metals are highly prevalent in the metal industry. Some examples of
transition metals are manganese which is involved in the production of hard steel, iron which
is a heavy metal, and titanium which is an excellent structural material for construction.

b) Which of the following do you regard as transition metals? Explain your answer.
(i) Scandium
(ii) Iron
(iii) Zinc
Iron is the transition metal here, while zinc and scandium are not. This is because a transition
metal is defined by being able to form one or more ions with an incompletely filled d subshell.
Zinc and scandium have fully filled d subshells (3d0 for Sc3+ and 3d10 for Zn2+).

2. Briefly explain how a bond is formed between a metal ion and a ligand in a complex
ion.
A ligand is an ion or molecule that is able surround a metal ion in way similar to Lewis acid-
base reactions. The ligand will possess at least one lone pair of electrons that can be donated
to the metal center. When one ligand forms a dative bond with the transition metal, the
coordination number of the transition metal will be one. Common examples of ligands are H2O,
NH3- and Cl-.

3. Write the electron configurations for Cu and Cu+.

Cu: [Ar] 4s1 3d10
Cu2+: [Ar] 3d9

4. Explain briefly why [Sc (H2O)6]3+ is colorless while [Ti(H2O)6]3+ is purple and
[Fe(H2O)6]3+ is green despite having the same ligand.
[Ti(H2O)6]3+ and [Fe(H2O)6]3+ have different colours despite having the same ligand because
the electronic repulsion between Ti3+ and Fe3+ with the ligand are different as they are
different transition elements, even though they have the same ligand type. The energy gap
which falls under the visible light range that provides the colour to the compound have different
values. However, [Sc (H2O)6]3+ is colourless because Sc3+ has no unpaired electrons and will
not have any splitting of the 3d-orbital as shown in the electron configuration of scandium
below:

Sc3+ : 18 : 1s22s23s23p6

Therefore, [Sc (H2O)6]3+ will be a colourless compound.

5. Explain briefly why [Cu(H2O)6]2+ is light blue, [Cu(NH3)4]2+ is deep blue and [CuCl4]2-
is green.

The colour of compounds is derived from the splitting of the 3d-orbital when a ligand is added.
When the 3d-orbital splits, the energy gap between the orbital split often lies within the visible
light range, that is 400-700 nm. This visible light range can be perceived by the human eye and
manifests in the form of about seven colours (purple to red). The light blue colour falls at
around 520-500 nm on the visible light spectrum, while deep blue is at roughly 500-435 nm
and green is 565-520 nm.

6. Give the IUPAC name for the following compounds:

[CrCl2(OH2)4]+ - Tetraaquadichlorochromium (III) ion
[CrCl4(OH2)2]- - Diaquatetrachlorochromium (III) ion
[Cr(OH2)(NH3)5]3+ - Pentaammineaquachromium (III) ion