Module 6
Metal Properties
and
Destructive
Testing
Metal Properties
• Physical properties (density)
• Mechanical properties *
• Alloy chemistry
• Alloy heat treatment
* Mechanical properties depend on alloy
chemistry, heat treatment and cold work.
Strength
“The ability of a material to bear an applied load”
Strength
Two common methods of expression:
• Ultimate tensile strength (UTS)
• Yield strength (or yield point)
Metal Behavior Under Load
• Elastic - No permanent deformation
• Plastic - Permanent deformation
Elastic
Behavior of
Steel
Temperature Effects
As metal temperatures increase:
• Strength decreases
• Hardness decreases
• Ductility increases
Ductility
The ability of a metal to deform without breaking
Brittle vs Ductile Failure
Brittle Ductile
Ductility Terms
• Percent elongation
• Percent reduction of area
Directional Properties
Both strength and ductility are affected by the
rolling direction of the metal. The three axes of
rolling direction are referred to as the X, Y, and Z
directions.
Rolling Directions
X Direction Best Strength & Ductility
Y Direction 10 - 30% Less Strength
20 - 50% Less Ductility
2 Direction Still Lower Strength & Ductility
Hardness
“Ability to resist indentation”
Indenter Types
Hardness Tester
Indentation
Shapes
Toughness
“The ability to absorb energy”
Toughness Comparison
Notch Toughness
“Toughness in the presence of surface notches
and rapid loading”
(also referred to as “Impact Strength”)
Stress Riser
“A surface condition, or geometric feature, that
increases the applied stress at the condition or
geometry”
Stress Risers (Notch Effects)
Notch Effects on Fatigue
Surface Finish Effects on Fatigue
Ductile - to - Brittle
Transition Temperature
“The temperature at which a metal fracture mode
changes from ductile to brittle”
Fatigue Strength
“The strength of a metal when exposed to
repeated reversals of cyclic stresses”
Endurance Limit
“The maximum stress at which no failure will
occur, regardless of cycles”
Typical S-N Curves
Soundness
“Freedom from discontinuities”
Chemical Properties
• Metals are mixtures of elements, and are
referred to as alloys
• Minor changes in alloy composition can have
major effects on alloy properties such as
mechanical strength, corrosion resistance
Common Steel Alloys
Common Name C% Typical Use Weldability
Ingot iron .03* Deep drawing Excellent
Low C .15* Electrodes
Excellent
Mild Steel .15-.30 Structural Good
Medium C .30-.50 Machinery Fair
High C .50-1.0 Springs, dies Poor
* Single values are maximums
Low Alloy Steels
• High strength, low alloy
• Automotive & machinery
• Low temperature
• Elevated temperature
High Alloy Steels
• Corrosion resistant
• High temperature
• High strength
Stainless Steels
Contain at least 12% Cr
• Austenitic
• Martensitic
• Ferritic
• Precipitation hardening
• Duplex
Elements in Steels - 1 of 2
• C - Most important
• S - Undesirable
• P - Undesirable
• Si - Deoxidizer
• Mn - Combines with S
• Cr - Hardenability, Corrosion Resistance
Elements in Steels - 2 of 2
• Mo - Hardenability
• Ni - Toughness, Ductility
• Al - Deoxidizer
• V - Hardenability
• Nb - Stabilizer
Dissolved Gases
(Embrittle steels, cause porosity)
• Hydrogen
• Oxygen
• Nitrogen
Aluminum Alloys
Heat treatable
Major Alloying Aluminum Association
Element Number
Cu 2XXX
Mg & Si 6XXX
Zn 7XXX
Aluminum Alloys
Non-heat treatable
Major Alloying Aluminum Association
Element Number
Pure Al 1XXX
Mn 3XXX
Si 4XXX
Mg 5XXX
Nickel Alloys
• Corrosion resistant
• Good low temperature properties
• Good high temperature properties
Copper Alloys
• Electrical conductivity
• Resistance to corrosion
• Resistance to erosion
• Resistance to water and salt water
Destructive Testing
“Failing, or destroying, a part, or a portion thereof,
to determine its properties”
Nondestructive Testing
“Does not affect the serviceability of the part after
testing is completed”
Tensile Testing
Typical Stress/Strain Curve - Steel
Sample Preparation
Area of a Circular Cross Section
Example 1
Area (circle) = x Radius2 = R2
= x Diameter2 = D2
4 4
Sample Diameter, D = 0.505 in.
Sample Radius, R = 0.2525 in.
Area = 3.1416 x 0.25252
Area = 0.20 in2
Alternate Calculation
Example 2 (using diameter directly)
Area = D2
4
Area = 3.1416 x (0.505) 2
4
Area = 0.20 in2
Calculation Shortcut
Area of Circle shortcut:
Area = 0.7854 x D2
because:
÷ 4 = 3.1416 ÷ 4 = 0.7854
Calculation of Tensile Strength
Example 3
Load to break = 12,500 lbs
Area of sample= 0.20 in. 2
Tensile strength = load area
Tensile strength = 12,500 0.20
Tensile strength = 62,500 psi
Offset Method
Unit Strain e e
Stress-Strain Diagram
High and Medium Strength Steels
High Strength Steel
High Carbon Spring Steel
Structural Steel
Medium Strength Steel
Percent Elongation
Original gage length = 2.0 in.
Final gage length = 2.6 in.
%Elongation = final length - original length x 100
original length
%Elongation = 2.6 - 2.0 x 100 = 30%
2.0
Percent Reduction of Area
Original area = 0.2 in.2
Final area = 0.1 in. 2
%Reduction of area (%RA) = ?
%RA = original area - final area x 100
original area
%RA = 0.2 - 0.1 x 100 = 50%
0.2
Hardness Tests
Brinell
Hardness
Tests
Rockwell
Hardness Tests
Microhardness
Hardness Testing Steps
• Prepare surface
• Make indentation
• ‘Measure’ indentation
• Determine hardness
Toughness Testing
• Impact testing
• Notch toughness
• Transition temperature
Charpy Test
• Prepare notched specimens (sets of 3)
• Test each specimen set at a specific
temperature
• Impact sample
• Plot results
Charpy Specimens
Typical
Charpy
Testing
Machine
Charpy Test Results
• Energy absorption - Ft. lbs.
• Percent shear - %
• Lateral expansion - Mils
Transition
Temperature
Determinations
Transition Temperature Samples
Soundness Testing
• Bend testing
• Nick-break
• Fillet break
Bend Test Samples
Transverse Weld Bend Specimens
Bend Test Samples
Longitudinal Weld Bend Specimens
Guided Bend Test Jig
Wrap-around
Bend Test Jig
Bend Test Procedure
• Prepare sample
• Orient in jig
• Bend sample (weld and HAZ in bend)
• Evaluate bend to Code
Nick Break Test
Evaluation of Nick-Break Test
Fillet Break Test
• Prepare sample
• Break sample
• Evaluate fracture
Fillet Break - Sample Fracture
Fillet Break Specimen - T-Joint
Fatigue Testing
• Prepare samples
• Test series of various loads
• Test to failure, record cycles
• Test at maximum load vs no failure
• Plot data
• Determine endurance limit
Chemical Testing
Determines Chemistry of Metals
• Spectrographic
• Combustion (CO, CO2 determination)
• Wet chemistry (titration)
• X-Ray fluorescence (XRF)
Corrosion Testing
“Evaluates metals in corrosive environments”
Metallographic Testing
• Shows structure of metal
• Macroscopic - less than 10X
• Microscopic - typically more than 100X
Photomacrograph
Photomicrograph
Heat Treatment - 1 of 3
• Mechanical properties are often very dependent
upon heat treat condition
• Many types of heat treatment
• Determine heat treat condition prior to welding
on base metal or mech. testing
• Consider effects of welding on heat treat
condition and mechanical properties
Heat Treatment - 2 of 3
Heat Treatments For Steels:
• Preheating
• Stress Relieving
• Normalizing
• Annealing
• Quenching and Tempering
• Others
Heat Treatment - 3 of 3
Heat Treatments For Stainless Steels:
• Preheating
• Stress Relieving
• Solution Annealing, Water Quench (Solution
Treatment)
• Quenching and Tempering
• Others
More on heat treating in Module 8