Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC701) 7th sem

MODULE I
Microwave Sources:
Introduction, Gunn Diode (Text 2: 7.1,7.1.1,7.1.2)
Microwave transmission lines: devices, Microwave systems.
Transmission line equations and solutions, Reflection Coefficient and
Transmission Coefficient. Standing wave and standing wave ratio.
Smith chart, Single stub matching.
Text 2: 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 3.1, 3.2, 3.3, 3.5, 3.6
(except double stub matching)
Introduction
The use of semiconductor devices such as transistors, diodes, MOS at
microwave frequencies has increased due to continuous wave, average
and peak power outputs.

Negative Resistance Devices:

 real part of their impedance is –ve over wide frequency range.
 V and I are out of phase by 180deg.
 Hence voltage drop is –ve and a power of –I2R is generated.
 -ve resistance devices generates power.

Positive Resistance Devices:

 V and I are in phase through the resistance.

 hence a power of I2R is dissipated in resistance.
 +ve resistance dissipates power

Transferred Electron Devices

 Transferred Electron Devices (TEDs), are semiconductor devices that
operate by transferring electrons from a high-mobility energy valley
to a low-mobility valley within the conduction band of a material like
gallium arsenide.
 This transfer, known as the Gunn effect, results in negative
differential resistance, causing the device to oscillate at microwave
frequencies when a critical electric field is applied.

Difference B/w Transistors & TEDs

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 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC701) 7th sem

Transistor TEDs

Have u
j nctions or gates No

fabricated from semiconductors, fabricated from compound

such as silicon or germanium, semiconductors, such as gallium
arsenide (GaAs), indium
phosphide (InP ), or cadmium
telluride (CdTe).
operate with w
" arm" electrons operate with h
" ot" electrons whose
whose energy is not much greater energy is very much greater than
than the thermal energy (0.026 eV the thermal energy.
at room temperature) of electrons
in the semiconductor

GUNN-EFFECT in n type GaAs diode

In GaAs for an electric field of 2000-4000 v/cm, the current fluctuation

took a form of periodic oscillations.
The period of oscillation is inversely proportional to length and is equal to
transit time of electrons between the electrodes.

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 Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC701) 7th sem

The carrier drift velocity is linearly increased from zero to max when
electric field is varied from zero to threshold value.
When the E field is beyond threshold value of 3000v/cm the drift velocity
is decreased and diode exhibits negative resistance as shown below.

Current fluctuation in n type GaAs gunn diode of length 2.5x10-3 cm for

16v pulse application for 2ns is shown in fig below.

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Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC701) 7th sem

MICROWAVE TRANSMISSION LINES

Microwaves are Electromagnetic waves having frequency above

300MHz.

Microwave Frequency Bands

Microwave System:

It consists of transmitter and receiver subsystems

The transmitter subsystem includes microwave source, waveguides

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Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC701) 7th sem

and antenna.
The receiver subsystem includes receiving antenna, waveguide
amplifier.

Merits and Demerits of Frequency Bands

Impact of Frequency on size of device

 AT Radio frequency wavelength is large(since λ=c/f) . Since all
microwave device dimensions are in terms of wavelength, at
lower frequencies the
device size is bigger as wavelength is larger.(can be compared
to size of building)
 But at microwave frequency wavelength is short and hence the
device size becomes compact.(can be compared to size of Ant).

 At infrared frequency range, the wavelength becomes still

more small compared to microwave and hence the size of
device becomes still more small (can be compared to size of virus)

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Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC701) 7th sem

Applications of Microwaves
• satellite communications,
• radar
• Mobile communication,
• navigational applications
• medical treatments,
• drying materials,
• households for the preparation of food(Oven)

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Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC701) 7th sem

Microwave Transmission line

Introduction: Transmission lines are metallic conductors that carry high

frequency microwaves.

Applications of Transmission lines

 To connect radio transmitters and receivers to their antennas
 To distribut cable television signals
 To build the microwave devices such as Filter, Power devider, Directional
Coupler ect
Difference B/W normal wire and Transmission line cable

Normal wire Transmission line cable

Carries low frequency signals such as Carries high frequency microwave
50Hz AC signal. signals
More reflections due to discontinuities Very less reflection
in cable hence more power loss is found Hence very less loss is found

Different types of Microwave transmission lines

• Two-wire parallel transmission lines
• Coaxial lines
• Strip /Microstripline transmission lines
• Waveguides

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Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC701) 7th sem

Main Parameters of a Transmission Line

Resistance(R), inductance(L), capacitance (c) and conductance(G) are main

parameters of Transmission line.
• Resistance(R) and inductance (L) contributes for transmission
line impedance(Z).
• Capacitance ( c) and conductance (G) contributes for transmission line
admittance(Y).

Writing Equivalent circuit for Two wire Transmission line

Here the units for R , L , G are Ω/mt , H/mt and /mt respectively.

Transmission-line is analyzed by two methods

1 Maxwells Equation method
2 Distributed circuit theory
Transmission line Equations using Distributed circuit theory:

Let consider a small elementary length ∆z.

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Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC701) 7th sem

(Note: In above circuit each parameter of transmission line(R,L,G,C) are

multiplied by ∆z to find absolute values.)
Appling Kirchoff voltage law to central loop where elementary length ∆z exist.

Simplification of eq 1 and ommiting the argument terms (z,t) it results in

expression 2.

Here the minus sign indicates that output voltage is smaller than input
Apply Kirchoff current law to node B

At node B, current entering the node is i(z,t) and the currents leaving the nodes are
iG, iC and i(z+∆z,t).
Therefore according to kirchoff current law,

i(z,t)= iG+ iC + i(z+∆z,t) ------------ (3)

From above fig voltage across G and C is V(z+∆z,t)

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Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC701) 7th sem

Therefore

iG= V(z+∆z,t) G∆z [ Note: I=VG, Ic=C dv/dt ]

V  z  z,t 
ic  Cz
t
Substituting for iG, iC in eq 3 results in eq (4)
V  z  z,t 
i  z,t   V  z  z, t  Gz  Cz  i  z  z, t ---------------- (4)
t
Simplifying eq (4) results in
i v
  Gv  c - ------------------- (5)
z t
Differentiating exp 2 wrt z and exp 5 wrt t results in, transmission line Eqs in
voltage form and current form respectively as follows

2v v 2v -----------

 RGv  RC  LG  LC (6)
z22 t t 2

i i 2i ---------------------------------
 RGi  RC  LG  LC (7)
z2 t t2
Exps 6 and 7 are called transmission line equations and are applicable to
transient Solutions.
From Exp 6 and 7 it is clear that voltage and current on transmission line are
functions of position z and time t.
Instantaneous line voltage and currents are given as
V  z,t   ReV  z e jwt
(8)
i  z,t   Re I  z e jwt
(9)
V(z) and I(z) are called phasors. These phasors give magnitude s and phases of
sinusoidal function at each position z and can be expressed as follows.
 z ------------------------------------------
V  z   V e z  Ve (10)
 z ---------------------------------------
I  z   I e z  I e (11)
Here     j
 is attenuation constant
 is propagation constant

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Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC701) 7th sem

Transmiision line Eqs in Phasor form

dv
 ZI (12)
dz
dI
 YV (13)
dz
d 2v (14)
2
V
dz2
d 2I
  2 I (15)
2
dz

Since Z  R  jwL ,Y  G  jwC ,  

YZ substitution these in above eqs and

simplify with R=G=0 results in

dv
  jwLI
dz
dI
  jwCV
dz
d 2v
  w2LCV
dz2
d 2I
 w2LCI
dz2

Solutions of Transmission line eqs

d 2v
2
- ------ (1)
V
dz2
d 2I
  2 I ----------(2)
2
dz

In these Expressions V and I are defined as follows

z
V  z   V e z  Ve

Substitute     j in eq it results in eq (3)

V  Veze j z Veze j z-------------- (3)

βz is called electrical length of transmission line
Similarly
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Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC701) 7th sem

In eq (2) I is given as 
I  Y0 Ve z Ve z 
Substitute     j in eq it results in eq (4)

I  Y0 (Veze j  z Veze j  z ) -----------(4)

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Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC701) 7th sem

At microwave frequencies R<wL & G<wC ie at microwave frequencies for a

transmission line we consider only its L & C and neglect R &G.
Then characteristic impedance is given as

Phase velocity Vp:

w 1
v  
p
 LC
 Phase velocity depends on permittivity and permiability of the dielectric
medium
present between two conductors.
 If the dielectric medium is air the phase velocity of the wave in
transmiision line
is equal to velicity of light.
 If the medium is other than air then phase velocity decreses by an amount of

Reflection coefficient & Transmission coefficient:

Incident voltage wave and current waves along the Transmission line are given by

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Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC701) 7th sem

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Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC701) 7th sem

Expression 2 can be rewritten in terms of impedance of Transmission line as 3

Voltage and currents at receiving end are given by

By Taking the ratio of current and voltage at receiving end we can define the
impednce (Zl) of the load and is given by.

Reflection coefficient (ᴦ)is defines as the ratio of reflected voltage of current to

incident
voltage or current

Solving the expression 6 for the ratio of reflected voltage to incident voltage yeilds
reflection coefficient (ᴦ)

If load impedance (Zl) and transmission line impedance are complex quatities then
reflection coefficient wil also becomes complex quatity. And hence is given as

Note:

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Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC701) 7th sem

Is called phase angle of reflection coefficient ie phase angle between

incident and reflected wave at receiving end
Generalized Exp for reflection coefficient is given by

The reflection coefficient at some point on the transmission line is given by

Substitute for in expr 11

Transmission coefficient (T):

T=Transmitted voltage/incident voltage

Standing Waves:

Standing waves are waves of voltage and current which do not propagate (i.e. they
are stationary), and are the result of incident and reflected waves along a
transmission line.

A node is a point on a standing wave of minimum amplitude. An antinode is a point

on a standing wave of maximum amplitude.

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Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC701) 7th sem

Voltage Standing Waves :

Eq for Voltage standing wave is given by(1)

(1)

Where V0 is given by

Is called standing wave pattern of voltage wave

Phase pattern of standing wave is given by

Maximum and Minimum Voltages are given as

Distance between two consecutive MAX and MIN is always one half wavelength.

Standing wave pattern in lossy and lossless transmission line

In lossy transmission line

In Lossless transmission line

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Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC701) 7th sem

When incident wave and reflected wave have same amplitude, then reflection
Coefficient becomes unity and standing wave pattern becomes

Is called PURE STANDING WAVE

Standing Wave Ratio

 Is defined as ratio of max voltage to min voltage.

 The standing wave ratio results from the fact that at some point incident
voltage and Reflected voltages wil add wher e they are in phase and at
some point will subtract Where they are outoff phase.
 The distance between two successive max and min is λ/2.
 When Standing wave ratio is unity there is no reflected wave and
transmission line is called flat line.
 It canot be defined on lossy line as standing wave pattern changes
remarkably.
 Standing wave ratio can also be defined in terms of reflection coefficient as
below

Impedance Matching
Terminating the transmission line by its impedance is called impedance matching.

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Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC701) 7th sem

Need of Impedance matching:

 If transmission line is not terminated by its impedance ie if there is

impedance mismatching then then standing waves exist in transmission line
which results in losss of power. Hence to avoid the reflected waves in
transmission line impedance matching is needed.
 If the line is terminated by its impedance then SWR becomes unity ie no
reflected power and line becomes flat line.
 Due to impedance matching transmission efficiency increases.

To provide impedance matching, matching devices are used at input and output as
shown in fig below.

Generally Iron cored transformers are used as impedance matching devices.

Impedance Matching Techniques/Methods

 Single stub matching

 Double stub matching

Single stub matching

 Uses susceptive properties of short circuit ed sections of transmission line.

 Here a short circuited transmission line is connected at receiving end/load

side.

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Microwave Engineering and Antenna Theory (BEC701) 7th sem

 Admittance of source Yg is equal to admittance of transmission line Y0 ie

Yg= Y0.
 Max power transfer requires Y11=Y0
 Y11 is total admittance of line and stub
 The short stub must be connected on the line location whereY11=Y0

*******

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