1.
1 Theoretical Perspectives
Psychodynamic Perspective
● The psychodynamic perspective focuses on unconscious thoughts and emotions.
● It explains development as being influenced by inner feelings and early experiences.
● Behaviour is affected by factors that people are not always aware of.
Sigmund Freud
● Freud believed humans are born with innate drives and instincts.
● These drives influence behaviour from birth.
● Early childhood experiences strongly shape personality.
● Freud also recognised the role of biological and constitutional factors from the start
of life.
Erik Erikson
● Erikson expanded Freud’s ideas by focusing on social and emotional development.
● He proposed stages of development across the lifespan.
● The first stage is trust vs mistrust, which begins at birth.
● Trust develops when caregivers are consistent, responsive, and emotionally
available.
Prenatal and Early Emotional Influences
● A mother’s emotional state during pregnancy (e.g. stress or anxiety) can affect the
prenatal environment.
● These factors may influence the infant’s emotional regulation.
● Early experiences affect attachment and personality development.
Key Idea
● Personality development begins very early in life.
● Emotional well-being during pregnancy and infancy is important for healthy
development.
Behavioural Perspective
● The behavioural perspective focuses on learning from the environment.
● It explains development through observable behaviour, not thoughts or feelings.
● Behaviour is shaped by experience, not by inborn traits.
Key Behaviourists
● John B. Watson believed behaviour is learned through interaction with the
environment.
● B.F. Skinner focused on how behaviour is shaped by:
o Reinforcement (rewards)
o Punishment (negative consequences)
Learning and Conditioning
● Behaviour develops through conditioning.
● Actions followed by rewards are more likely to be repeated.
● Actions followed by punishment are less likely to occur.
Prenatal Influences
● The prenatal environment affects later behaviour.
● Important factors include:
o Maternal nutrition
o Exposure to drugs or alcohol
o Maternal stress levels
● These factors can influence the infant’s physical and behavioural development.
Postnatal Learning
● After birth, infants learn through interaction with caregivers.
● Caregiving behaviours such as:
o Feeding
o Holding
o Soothing
can reinforce certain responses.
● Positive caregiving encourages healthy behavioural patterns.
Key Idea
● Development is not fixed at birth.
● Behaviour is shaped continuously by the environment.
● Early caregiving and stimulation are crucial for healthy development.
Socio-Biological (Evolutionary) Perspective
● This perspective explains development through biology and genetics.
● It is based on evolution and natural selection.
● Key theorists:
o Charles Darwin
o E.O. Wilson
Core Ideas
● Human traits develop because they help survival and reproduction.
● Development is guided by genetic instructions from conception.
● Many behaviours are innate (inborn), not learned.
Prenatal Development
● Development follows a biologically programmed sequence.
● Includes:
o Organ formation
o Brain development
o Reflex development
● This process is universal across cultures.
Innate Survival Behaviours
● Newborn behaviours such as:
o Sucking
o Grasping
o Crying
are seen as evolutionary adaptations.
● These behaviours help the baby survive and gain care.
Role of Environment
● Biology plays the central role.
● Environment can influence how genes are expressed, but not replace them.
Cognitive Perspective
● The cognitive perspective focuses on mental processes.
● These include:
o Thinking
o Memory
o Perception
o Problem-solving
Key Theorist
● Jean Piaget
● He believed children are active learners.
● Knowledge is built through interaction with the environment.
Stages of Development
● Cognitive development occurs in stages.
● Each stage represents a new way of thinking.
● Piaget mainly focused on postnatal development.
Prenatal Cognitive Development
● Modern cognitive psychology recognizes that development begins before birth.
● During pregnancy:
o The brain grows rapidly
o Neural pathways are formed
o Sensory systems begin to develop
Newborn Cognitive Abilities
● Newborns can:
o Recognize familiar voices
o Respond to sensory stimuli
o Learn through repetition
Key Idea
● Prenatal development provides the neurological foundation.
● This foundation supports later learning and thinking abilities.
Socio-Emotional Perspective
● Focuses on emotions, relationships, and social interaction
● Emotional development begins very early
● Early relationships shape personality and mental health
● The fetus can react to the mother’s emotional state
● Prenatal emotional environment can influence development
● After birth, interaction with caregivers leads to attachment
● Attachment provides emotional security
● Secure attachment develops through:
o Consistent caregiving
o Sensitive and responsive care
● Secure attachment supports:
o Emotional regulation
o Social competence
o Resilience in later life
● Early emotional experiences are important for healthy development
Socio-Cultural Perspective
● Development is shaped by culture and society
● Influenced by Lev Vygotsky
● Emphasizes social interaction in development
● Cultural beliefs, values, and practices guide development
● From conception to birth, culture influences:
o Prenatal care
o Diet during pregnancy
o Childbirth practices
o Early caregiving behaviors
● These practices affect physical and psychological development
● Learning happens through interaction with others
● Caregivers and the wider social environment play a key role
● Development is a collaborative process
● Development should be understood within its cultural context, not just as an
individual process
1.2 Prenatal Development
Gestation
● Period of development from conception to birth
● Lasts about 38 weeks
● Normal range is 38–42 weeks
Gestational Period
● Refers to the age of the unborn baby
● Usually counted from the first day of the mother’s last menstrual period
● Used by doctors to estimate due dates
Course of Prenatal Development
● Begins with fertilization and ends with birth
● Lasts about 266–280 days (around 38–40 weeks)
● Development occurs in three stages:
o Germinal stage
o Embryonic stage
o Fetal stage
● Developmental changes:
o Single cell (zygote) → embryo → fetus
Principles of Development
● Development follows two main patterns:
o Top to bottom (head develops before body and legs)
o Center outward (trunk develops before arms, hands, fingers)
● Head and trunk develop before limbs
● Arms and legs develop before fingers and toes
The Germinal Period
Meaning
● The germinal period is the first stage of prenatal development
● It lasts for the first 2 weeks after conception
● This stage includes:
o Rapid cell division
o Formation of the blastocyst
o Implantation in the uterus
Cell Division
● After fertilization, the zygote begins to divide very quickly
● Within 36 hours, cell division starts (called mitosis)
● After 72 hours:
o The zygote divides into 16 cells
o Then into 32 cells
● One day later, it reaches about 64 cells
Movement to the Uterus
● While dividing, the fertilized egg moves:
o From the fallopian tube
o Toward the uterus
● This journey takes about 3–4 days
Blastocyst Formation
● Around one week after conception:
o Cells begin differentiation
o Differentiation means cells start specializing for different functions
● The group of cells is now called a blastocyst
● The blastocyst has two main parts:
o Inner cell mass → develops into the embryo
o Trophoblast → forms structures that support and nourish the embryo
● The blastocyst is a fluid-filled structure
● It floats freely in the uterus for a short time
Embryonic Disk and Cell Layers
● Before implantation:
o Some cells group together to form the embryonic disk
● The embryonic disk later forms three layers:
o Endoderm (inner layer)
o Mesoderm (middle layer)
o Ectoderm (outer layer)
● These layers will later form all body structures
Implantation
● Implantation means the blastocyst attaches to the uterine wall
● It occurs about 11–15 days after conception
● Implantation marks the end of the germinal period
The Embryonic Period
Time Period
● Occurs from 2 to 8 weeks after conception
● Begins when the blastocyst implants in the uterine wall
● The developing organism is now called an embryo
Key Features
● Rapid cell differentiation (cells specialize for different functions)
● Support systems for the embryo develop
● Major organs begin to form
● This is the most critical and vulnerable stage of prenatal development
Three Germ Layers
During this period, the embryo forms three layers of cells, from which all body parts
develop:
Endoderm (inner layer)
● Develops into:
o Digestive system
o Liver
o Pancreas
o Salivary glands
o Respiratory system
● Mainly forms internal organs
Mesoderm (middle layer)
● Develops into:
o Circulatory system
o Bones and muscles
o Excretory system
o Reproductive system
● Forms structures that support and surround organs
Ectoderm (outer layer)
● Develops into:
o Brain and nervous system
o Sensory receptors (eyes, ears, nose)
o Skin, hair, and nails
● Mainly forms surface structures
Life-Support Systems
As the germ layers form, important life-support systems develop:
Amnion
● A sac filled with amniotic fluid
● Protects the embryo
● Keeps temperature stable
● Acts as a shock absorber
Umbilical Cord
● Contains two arteries and one vein
● Connects the embryo to the placenta
● Carries nutrients and oxygen to the embryo
● Removes waste products
Placenta
● Disk-shaped organ
● Mother’s and baby’s blood vessels are close but do not mix
● Allows exchange of:
o Oxygen
o Nutrients
o Waste products
Placental Barrier
● Small molecules can pass through:
o Oxygen
o Water
o Nutrients
o Carbon dioxide
o Waste products
● Large molecules cannot pass:
o Red blood cells
o Most bacteria
o Many harmful substances
● The exact process is not fully understood
Organogenesis
● Organogenesis = formation of organs
● Occurs during the first 2 months
● Organs are highly sensitive to environmental hazards (e.g. drugs, infections)
Major Developments by Week
● Week 3:
o Neural tube forms → becomes the spinal cord
● Day 21:
o Eyes begin to develop
● Day 24:
o Heart cells begin to form
● Week 4:
o Urogenital system appears
o Arm and leg buds develop
o Heart develops four chambers
o Blood vessels form
● Weeks 5–8:
o Arms and legs grow and differentiate
o Face begins to form
o Intestinal tract develops
o Facial structures fuse
Size at 8 Weeks
● Weight: about 1/30 ounce
● Length: just over 1 inch
The Fetal Period
Time Period
● Begins 2 months after conception
● Continues until birth
● Lasts about 7 months
● Main focus: growth and organ maturation
General Characteristics
● Rapid increase in size and weight
● Organs formed earlier now grow and begin to function
● Movement and reflexes increase
● The fetus becomes more active and responsive
Development by Month
3 Months After Conception
● Length: about 3 inches
● Weight: about 3 ounces
● Active movements:
o Arms and legs move
o Mouth opens and closes
o Head moves
● Facial features visible:
o Forehead
o Eyelids
o Nose
o Chin
● Limbs clearly formed:
o Upper and lower arms
o Hands
o Legs
● Sex organs usually identifiable
End of 4th Month
● Length: about 6 inches
● Weight: 4–7 ounces
● Growth spurt in lower body
● Mother feels fetal movement for the first time
o Known as quickening
End of 5th Month
● Length: about 12 inches
● Weight: nearly 1 pound
● Skin structures form:
o Fingernails
o Toenails
● Increased activity
● Fetus may prefer a specific position in the womb
End of 6th Month
● Length: about 14 inches
● Weight gain: ½ to 1 pound
● Eyes and eyelids fully formed
● Fine hair covers the head
● Grasping reflex present
● Irregular breathing movements begin
Viability
● Around 24–25 weeks (6 months):
o Fetus may survive outside the womb
o This is called viability
● Preterm babies (24–37 weeks):
o Often need help breathing
o Lungs are not fully mature
End of 7th Month
● Length: about 16 inches
● Weight: about 3 pounds
● Major organs (heart, kidneys) function more effectively
Last Two Months (8th and 9th Month)
● Rapid weight gain
● Development of fatty tissue
● Organ systems continue to mature
● Weight increases by about 4 pounds
At Birth
● Average length: 20 inches
● Average weight: 7½ pounds
1.3 HUMAN BIRTH
The Birth Process
● Birth happens in stages
● It can occur in different settings (hospital, clinic, home)
● Usually involves one or more attendants:
o Doctors
o Nurses
o Midwives
Stages of Birth
Birth occurs in three stages
Stage 1: Dilation and Effacement (Longest Stage)
● Begins with uterine contractions
● Early contractions:
o 15–20 minutes apart
o Last about 1 minute
● Contractions:
o Become closer together (every 2–5 minutes)
o Become stronger and more intense
● Cervix:
o Gradually stretches and opens
o Fully dilated at 10 cm (4 inches)
● Purpose:
o Allows the baby to move into the birth canal
● Duration:
o First childbirth: 6–12 hours
o Later births: usually shorter
Stage 2: Delivery of the Baby
● Begins when:
o Baby’s head moves through the cervix and birth canal
● Ends when:
o Baby is completely born
● Mother:
o Pushes with each contraction
● Contractions:
o Occur almost every minute
o Last about 1 minute
● Duration:
o About 45 minutes to 1 hour
Stage 3: Afterbirth
● Occurs after the baby is born
● Placenta, umbilical cord, and membranes are:
o Detached
o Expelled from the body
● Duration:
o Very short
o Lasts only a few minutes
Key Points to Remember
● Stage 1 = Cervix opens
● Stage 2 = Baby is born
● Stage 3 = Placenta is delivered
Birth Complications
What are Birth Complications?
● Birth complications are problems during labor or delivery
● They can affect:
o The mother
o The baby
o Or both
● Causes may include:
o Physical strain
o Lack of oxygen
o Medical problems
o Difficult delivery
Common Types of Birth Complications
1. Prolonged or Difficult Labor
● Labor lasts too long
● Contractions may be weak
● Baby may not move well through the birth canal
● Can cause stress to the baby
● May require:
o Medicines to strengthen contractions
o Cesarean section (C-section)
2. Lack of Oxygen (Birth / Perinatal Asphyxia)
● Baby does not get enough oxygen before or during birth
● Can affect the brain
● May cause:
o Developmental problems
o Learning difficulties later in life
3. Premature Birth
● Baby is born too early
● Organs may be not fully developed
● Common problems:
o Breathing difficulties
o Feeding problems
o Trouble controlling body temperature
● Often needs special medical care
4. Low Birth Weight
● Baby is born very small
● Often linked to:
o Premature birth
o Poor growth during pregnancy
● Risks include:
o Infections
o Delays in physical development
o Learning difficulties
5. Umbilical Cord Problems
● Cord may:
o Wrap around the baby’s neck
o Get pressed during delivery
● This can reduce oxygen supply
● Needs immediate medical attention
6. Excessive Bleeding in the Mother
● Heavy bleeding after delivery
● Can be life-threatening
● Requires urgent treatment
Key Point to Remember
● Birth complications can be serious
● With:
o Proper medical care
o Monitoring
o Support
● Most complications can be managed
● Many babies still develop normally
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Here is a clear, simple, LD-friendly BULLET POINT summary of 1.4 Prenatal Hazards,
organized for easy studying and exams.
1.4 Prenatal Hazards
What are Prenatal Hazards?
● Prenatal hazards are conditions or agents that harm normal development before birth
● They can be:
o Biological
o Environmental
o Psychological
Teratogens
Meaning
● A teratogen is any agent that:
o Causes birth defects
o Affects brain development
o Affects behavior and learning
● Almost every fetus is exposed to some teratogens
● Effects may:
o Appear later in life
o Not be visible at birth
Teratology
● Teratology: study of physical birth defects
● Behavioral teratology: study of brain, learning, and behavior effects
Factors Affecting Teratogen Damage
1. Dose
● Higher dose = greater damage
2. Genetic Susceptibility
● Effects depend on:
o Mother’s genes
o Baby’s genes
● Male fetuses are more affected than females
3. Time of Exposure
● Damage depends on when exposure occurs
● Embryonic period is most vulnerable
● Critical period:
o Short time when organs are forming
o Damage is permanent
● Nervous system is affected earlier than arms and legs
● Fetal exposure mainly affects:
o Growth
o Organ functioning
Major Teratogens and Their Effects
Prescription & Non-Prescription Drugs
● Some antibiotics, antidepressants, hormones, Accutane, asthma drugs
● SSRIs (sertraline, citalopram):
o Increase risk of heart defects
● High-dose aspirin:
o Causes bleeding
● Low-dose aspirin:
o Generally safe
Psychoactive Drugs
Affect the nervous system
Caffeine
● 200 mg or more per day:
o Increased risk of miscarriage
Alcohol
● Causes Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD)
● Effects include:
o Facial defects
o Heart defects
o Learning problems
o Low intelligence
o Memory and attention problems
Nicotine (Smoking)
● Causes:
o Low birth weight
o Preterm birth
o Breathing problems
o SIDS
o ADHD risk
● Secondhand smoke also harmful
Cocaine
● Causes:
o Low birth weight
o Brain and behavior problems
o Attention and learning difficulties
● Use during pregnancy is never recommended
Methamphetamine
● Causes:
o Infant death
o Low birth weight
o Memory and behavior problems
Marijuana
● Linked to:
o Lower intelligence
o Later drug use
● Not recommended during pregnancy
Heroin
● Causes:
o Withdrawal symptoms in newborns
o Attention problems later
● Methadone treatment:
o Causes severe withdrawal in infants
Incompatible Blood Types (Rh Factor)
● Mother: Rh-negative
● Baby: Rh-positive
● Mother’s antibodies may attack fetus
● Effects:
o Miscarriage
o Brain damage
o Death
● Prevented by RhoGAM injection
Environmental Hazards
● X-rays (early pregnancy)
● Toxic chemicals:
o Lead
o Mercury
o Carbon monoxide
o Pesticides
● Can cause:
o Brain damage
o Miscarriage
o Low intelligence
Maternal Diseases
● Rubella:
o Causes birth defects
● Syphilis:
o Causes blindness and skin problems
● Genital herpes:
o Can cause death or brain damage
o C-section reduces risk
● HIV/AIDS:
o Can be passed to baby
● Diabetes:
o Causes birth defects
o Very large babies
o Increased diabetes risk later
Other Parental Factors
Maternal Nutrition
● Poor nutrition:
o Birth defects
● Obesity:
o Stillbirth
o NICU admission
● Folic acid:
o Prevents neural tube defects
o Reduces behavior problems
● Mercury in fish:
o Causes miscarriage
o Lower intelligence
Maternal Age
● Adolescents:
o Higher infant death rate
● Age 35+:
o Increased risk of Down syndrome
o Preterm birth
o Low birth weight
Emotional Stress
● High stress and anxiety:
o ADHD
o Emotional problems
o Language delay
● Depression:
o Preterm birth
o Slower growth
Paternal Factors
● Exposure to:
o Lead
o Radiation
o Chemicals
● Can cause:
o Miscarriage
o Childhood cancer
● Smoking:
o Early pregnancy loss
● Older fathers:
o Birth defects
● Teenage fathers:
o Premature birth
o Low birth weight
Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants
Key Conditions
● Three related risks to newborns:
o Low birth weight
o Preterm birth
o Small for date (small for gestational age)
Low Birth Weight
● Birth weight less than 5½ pounds
● Categories:
o Very low birth weight: under 3½ pounds
o Extremely low birth weight: under 2 pounds
Preterm Infants
● Born before 37 weeks of gestation
● That is 3 or more weeks early
● Higher risk for:
o Breathing problems
o Infection
o Developmental difficulties
Small for Date Infants
● Also called small for gestational age
● Birth weight is below normal for pregnancy length
● Weigh less than 90% of babies of same gestational age
● Can be:
o Preterm
o Full-term
● Have over 4 times higher risk of death
Reasons for Increased Preterm Birth
● More pregnancies in women 35 years and older
● Increase in multiple births (twins, triplets)
● Medical intervention:
o Induced early labor to improve survival
● Increased substance use:
o Tobacco
o Alcohol
● Higher levels of stress
● Ethnic differences:
o U.S. rate (2006): 12.8%
o African American infants: 18.5%
Prevention and Protective Factors
Progestin Treatment
● Most effective for women who:
o Had a previous preterm birth
o Have a short cervix (≤ 15 mm)
o Are carrying a single baby (not twins)
Physical Activity
● Light activity:
o 24% lower risk of preterm birth
● Moderate to heavy activity:
o 66% lower risk
● Yoga:
o Linked to positive pregnancy outcomes
Consequences of Preterm Birth and Low Birth Weight
General Effects
● Most preterm and low birth weight babies survive and can be healthy
● However, as a group, they have more health and learning problems than
normal-weight babies
Types of Preterm Birth
● Extremely preterm:
o Born before 28 weeks
● Very preterm:
o Born before 33 weeks
Severity of Problems
● Problems are more serious when:
o Baby is born earlier
o Baby has lower birth weight
● Survival rates have increased
● However, severe brain damage has also increased in very early, very small babies
Long-Term Problems
● Higher risk of:
o Learning disabilities
o Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
o Breathing problems (e.g., asthma)
● About 50% of low birth weight children need special education
Care for Preterm and Low Birth Weight Infants
Kangaroo Care
● Baby (wearing only a diaper) is held skin-to-skin on parent’s chest
● Usually done 2–3 hours per day
● Benefits:
o Stabilizes heartbeat
o Improves breathing
o Helps control body temperature
o Increases weight gain
o Reduces pain and stress
Massage Therapy
● In NICU:
o Moderate-pressure massage
o 15 minutes, three times a day
o Done for five days
● Reduces stress behaviors like:
o Crying
o Jerky movements
o Startling
Massage by Mothers
● Mothers were taught to massage their babies at home
● Done once daily before bedtime for the first month
● Moderate pressure worked best
● Benefits:
o Better weight gain
o Calmer behavior
o Better sleep
o Improved attention and emotional response
Benefits for Babies of Depressed Mothers
● Massage helped babies:
o Feel less stressed
o Be more social
o Be easier to soothe
Key Benefits of Massage Therapy
● Increased weight gain
● Earlier hospital discharge (3–6 days sooner)
Infant Assessment
Initial Newborn Care
● Soon after birth, the newborn is:
o Weighed
o Cleaned
o Checked for health or developmental problems
● These checks help identify urgent medical needs
The Apgar Scale
Purpose
● Used to assess the health of newborns
● Done at:
o 1 minute after birth
o 5 minutes after birth
● Helps evaluate:
o How well the baby handled birth
o How well the baby is adjusting to the new environment
● Identifies babies who may need immediate medical help
What the Apgar Scale Measures
Each area is scored 0, 1, or 2
● Heart rate
● Breathing (respiratory effort)
● Muscle tone
● Body color
● Reflex response (reaction to stimulation)
Apgar Score Meaning
● 7–10 → Baby is in good condition
● 5–6 → Possible developmental concerns
● 3 or below → Medical emergency, baby may not survive
Apgar Scale Components
● Heart Rate
o 0: No heartbeat
o 1: Slow (less than 100 beats per minute)
o 2: Normal (100–140 beats per minute)
● Breathing
o 0: No breathing
o 1: Slow or irregular breathing
o 2: Normal breathing with strong crying
● Muscle Tone
o 0: Limp body
o 1: Weak movement
o 2: Active and strong movement
● Body Color
o 0: Blue or pale
o 1: Pink body, blue hands and feet
o 2: Fully pink body
● Reflex Response
o 0: No response
o 1: Facial grimace
o 2: Crying, coughing, or sneezing
Other Newborn Assessment Tools
Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)
● Done 24–36 hours after birth
● Used with healthy, full-term infants
● Measures:
o Neurological development
o Reflexes
o Responses to people and objects
● Assesses 16 reflexes, such as:
o Blinking
o Sneezing
o Rooting
● Also looks at responses to:
o People (face, voice)
o Objects (e.g., rattle)
● Can be used up to 1 month of age
Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS)
● Designed for at-risk infants
● Developed for:
o Preterm babies
o Substance-exposed babies
● Assesses:
o Behavior
o Neurological functioning
o Stress responses
o Ability to regulate body systems
● Not suitable for infants under 30 weeks gestation
● NNNS results at 1 month can predict:
o Neurological problems
o IQ
o School readiness at 4.5 years
Key Point
● Apgar Scale → quick health check at birth
● NBAS → detailed assessment of normal infants
● NNNS → assessment of high-risk infants