PES Institute of Technology and Management

NH-206, Sagar Road, Shivamogga-577204

Course: biology for engineers Semester :4th semester

MODULE 1: CELL BASIC UNIT OF LIFE

Cell
• The cell is the basic structural, functional and biological unit of living organism. It is also called as
“building block of life”.
• In 1665, Robert Hooke discovered cell. He observed a piece of cork under the microscope and found
it to be made of small compartments which he called cell. In Latin cell means small room.

• Examples: amoeba plant and animal cell, red blood cell, nerve cell, bacterial cell

Cell theory
In 1838, M.J. Schleiden and Theodore Schwann formulated the “cell theory”

• All organisms are composed of cells.

• Cell is the structural and functional unit of life.
• Cells arise from pre-existing cells .
There are two types of cells
[Link] cell.
[Link] cell.
 Prokaryotic cell
A prokaryotic cell does not have a nuclear membrane. The genetic material is present in a region in the
cytoplasm known as the nucleotide. They may be spherical, rod shaped or spiral.
1. Capsule: outer protective covering found in the bacterial cells, in addition to the cell wall. It helps in
moisture retention, protects the cell when engulfed and help in the attachment of the cells to nutrients
and surfaces.
2. Cell wall: it is the outermost layer of the cell which gives shape to the cell.
3. Cytoplasm: the cytoplasm is mainly composed of enzymes, salts, cell organelles is a gel like
compound
4. Cell membrane: this layer surrounds the cytoplasm and regulates the entry and exists of substance in
the cell.
5. Pilli: these are hair like outgrowth that attached to the surface of other bacterial cells.
6. Flagella: these are long structures in the form of a whip, that help in the locomotion of a cell.
7. Ribosome: these are involved in protein synthesis.
8. Plasmid: plasmids are non chromosomal DNA structures. These are not involved in reproduction.
9. Nucleotide region: it is the region in the cytoplasm where the genetic material is present.

Eukaryotic cell
• Eu means true, karyon means nucleus.

• Eukaryotic cell have a nucleus enclosed within the nuclear membrane.

• The cell has mitochondria.

• Flagella and cilia are the locomotory organs in eukaryotic cell.

• A cell wall is the outermost layer of eukaryotic cells.

• The cells divide by a process called mitosis.

• The eukaryotic cells contain a cytoskeleton structure.

• The nucleus contains a single, linear DNA which carries all the genetic information.
 Cell wall
• Cell wall is a rigid structure present outside the plant cell, absent in animal cell.
• It is made up of cellulose, hemicelluloses, pectin and proteins.
• It provides shape to the cell and helps in cell to cell interaction.
• It is a protective layer that protects the cell from any injury or pathogen attacks

Plasma membrane
• The cell membrane is also called as plasma membrane.
• It separates the cell from the outside environment.
• It comprises specific embedded proteins, which help in the exchange of substances in and out of the
cell .

Cytoplasm
• It is a jelly or gelatinous liquid that fills a cell.
• It the site where most cell activities are carried out ,as it contains molecules,enzymes that are crucial
in the breakdown of waste
 Nucleus
• Nucleus is the part of the cell that contains the cell’s DNA.
• It is responsible for storing the cell’s DNA, controls the cell’s growth and division also controls the
protein synthesis and enzymes.
• Endoplasmic reticulum is a network of membranes inside a cell through which protein and other
molecules move.

• Rough endoplasmic reticulum contains ribosome.

• Smooth endoplasmic reticulum that lacks ribosome and is therefore smooth.

Golgi apparatus
• It is made up of flat disc shaped structures called cisternae.
• It is an important site for the formation of glycoprotein and glycolipids

Ribosome
• A ribosome is a molecular machine that synthesizes protein in cells .
• Ribosome consists of subunit like small subunit and large subunit .
• Ribosome are made of RNA and protein and are found in all living cells
 Mitochondria
• These are also known as “powerhouse of the cell” because they produce energy.
• It consists of an outer membrane and an inner membrane.
• The inner membrane is divided into folds called cristae.
• They help in the regulation of cell metabolism

• They are known as “cell’s suicide bags” because they possess hydrolytic enzymes to digest protein ,
lipids ,carbohydrates and nucleic acids
• They also engulf other foreign particles

Chloroplast
• The chloroplast is surrounded by double membrane called the chloroplast envelope .
• The chloroplast envelope has inner and outer membrane in between the there is intermembrane space
will be present.
• The internal membrane is called as thylakoid membrane
• The inner membrane has folds called cristae that extend into core of the chloroplast

.
 Vacuole
• A vacuole is a membrane bounded organelle that stores water, waste, and other materials in the cells.
• Vacuoles are found in plants, fungal, and some animal cell.

Functions of cell
• Genetic material: Cells contain DNA and RNA, which direct cellular activities.
• Growth and division: Cells grow and divide through mitosis and cytokinesis.
• Metabolic processes: Cells break down nutrients for energy, synthesize new molecules, and
eliminate waste.
• Protein synthesis: Cells synthesize proteins that function as structural materials, enzymes, hormones,
and other vital substances.

• Membrane biogenesis: Cells synthesize cell membranes using proteins and lipids.
• Support and structure: Cells provide support and structure to the body.
• Reproduction: Cells help in reproduction.
• Energy: Cells provide energy and allow the transport of substances.
• Intercellular communication: Cells communicate with other cells.
• Cell differentiation: Cells differentiate into different types of cells.
• Respiration: cell helps in conversion of glucose into ATP.
• Cellular communication: signals between cells via various molecules.
• Movement: supports cell movement and shape change.
Characteristic Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell

Cell size Typically, 0.2-2.0 µm in diameter Typically, 10- 100µm in diameter

Example Bacteria and Archaea Animals, plants and fungi

Nucleus Absent Present

Membrane Absent Mitochondria, Golgi apparatus,

enclosed Endoplasmic reticulum, Lysosomes,
organelles Chloroplast is present.
Cell structure Unicellular Multicellular

Cell wall Present Present in plant cell and fungal cells, but
absent in animal cell.

Cytoplasm No cytoskeleton or cytoplasmic Cytoskeleton or cytoplasmic streaming is

streaming present
Ribosome Smaller Large

Cell division Binary fission Mitosis

Number of One but not true More than one

chromosomes
Sexual No meiosis, transfer of DNA Involves meiosis
reproduction fragments (conjugation)
 Difference between plant and animal cell

[Link] Plant Cell Animal cell

1 Usually, they are larger than animal cells Usually smaller than plant cells

2 Cell wall present in addition to plasma Cell wall absent

membrane and consists of middle lamellae,
primary and secondary walls

3 Plasmodesmata present Plasmodesmata absent

4 Chloroplast present Chloroplast absent

5 Vacuole large and permanent Vacuole small and temporary

6 Tonoplast present around vacuole Tonoplast absent

7 Centrioles absent except motile cells of lower Centrioles present

plants

8 Nucleus present along the periphery of the cell Nucleus at the center of the cell

9 Lysosomes are rare Lysosomes present

10 Storage material is starch grains Storage material is glycogen granules

 Stem cells
Stem cells are undifferentiated cells with the ability to develop into different types of specialized cells in
the body. They play a crucial role in growth, repair, and regeneration.

Types of Stem Cells

[Link] Stem Cells – Derived from embryos; can differentiate into any cell type.

[Link] Stem Cells – Found in tissues like bone marrow and skin; limited differentiation potential.

[Link] Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs) – Genetically reprogrammed adult cells that act like
embryonic stem cells.

Stem cell application

[Link] Transplantation

Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation (HSCT) is a medical procedure that replaces damaged or
diseased blood-forming stem cells with healthy hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). These cells are
responsible for producing red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.

Types of HSC Transplantation

1. Autologous Transplantation – The patient’s own stem cells are used. Used in conditions like
lymphoma and multiple myeloma.

2. Allogeneic Transplantation – Stem cells come from a matched donor (related or unrelated).

• Used for leukemia, severe anemia, and genetic disorders.

3. Syngeneic Transplantation – Stem cells are taken from an identical twin.

• Has the lowest risk of rejection.
• Bone Marrow – Traditional source of stem cells.
• Peripheral Blood Stem Cells (PBSCs) – Collected from the bloodstream after stimulation with growth
factors.
• Umbilical Cord Blood – Rich in stem cells and used for pediatric patients.

Uses of HSC Transplantation

• Blood Cancers – Leukemia, lymphoma, multiple myeloma.

• Bone Marrow Failure Syndromes – Aplastic anemia.
• Genetic Disorders – Sickle cell anemia, thalassemia.
• Autoimmune Diseases – Multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus erythematosus.

2. Placental Stem Cell Therapy

Placental stem cell therapy involves the use of stem cells derived from the placenta to treat various
medical conditions. The placenta is a rich source of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and hematopoietic
stem cells (HSCs), which have regenerative and healing properties.

Types of Placental Stem Cells

1. Hematopoietic Stem Cells (HSCs) – Used for blood-related disorders.

2. Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs) – Used for tissue repair and immune modulation.
3. Amniotic Epithelial Cells (AECs) – Have potential in regenerative medicine.

Applications of Placental Stem Cell Therapy

1. Regenerative Medicine – Helps in tissue repair for heart, liver, and neurological diseases.
2. Autoimmune Diseases – Treats conditions like multiple sclerosis and lupus.
3. Wound Healing – Speeds up recovery in burns and injuries.
4. Orthopedic Treatments – Used for cartilage and bone regeneration in arthritis.
5. Neurological Disorders – Investigated for Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s, and spinal cord injuries.
6. Anti-Aging and Aesthetic Medicine – Used in skin rejuvenation and anti-aging treatments.

3. Artificial Organ Engineering : Artificial organ engineering is the process of creating functional,
bioengineered organs using biomaterials, stem cells, and 3D printing technology. These organs can
replace damaged or failing organs, reducing the need for organ transplants.
Applications of Stem Cells in Artificial Organs

1. Artificial Heart – Stem cells generate heart tissue for repairing damaged hearts.
2. Artificial Blood Vessels – Used to create bioengineered vascular grafts.
3. Artificial Kidney – Helps develop kidney organoids for dialysis-free treatment.
4. Bioengineered Liver – Supports liver tissue regeneration for liver failure.
5. Artificial Pancreas – Produces insulin-secreting cells for diabetes treatment.
6. Artificial Lungs – Creates lung tissue for respiratory disease treatment.
7. Artificial Skin – Helps in wound healing and burn treatment.
8. Artificial Cornea – Restores vision by regenerating corneal tissue.

Note: students you can also write as below in your exam

Applications of Stem Cells

Regenerative Medicine – Used to treat damaged tissues and organs (e.g., heart disease, spinal cord
injury).
Bone Marrow Transplant – Treats blood disorders like leukemia and sickle cell anemia.
Diabetes Treatment – Stem cells may help regenerate insulin-producing pancreatic cells.
Neurological Disorders – Potential therapy for Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s, and stroke recovery.
Organ Transplantation – Research aims to grow organs from stem cells, reducing donor dependence.
Drug Testing and Development – Stem cells help test new drugs for safety and effectiveness
Cancer Treatment: Stem cells help in understanding cancer progression and developing targeted
therapies. It is also used in bone marrow transplants for leukemia and lymphoma treatment.
Wound Healing and Skin Regeneration -Stem cells promote faster healing of burns and chronic
wounds. Used in skin grafts for burn victims.
Blindness and Vision Restoration: Stem cell therapy is being developed to treat retinal diseases like
macular degeneration. Potential to regenerate damaged optic nerves.
Infertility Treatment -Stem cells may help regenerate reproductive cells, offering hope for infertile
individuals.
Heart Disease Treatment: Stem cells can repair damaged heart tissue after a heart attack. Used in
clinical trials to improve heart function.
Liver Disease Therapy -Stem cells can regenerate damaged liver tissue, reducing the need for liver
transplants.
Muscle and Bone Regeneration: Potential treatment for muscular dystrophy and osteoporosis. Helps
in healing bone fractures and cartilage damage
 Immune System Disorders - Stem cell therapy is used in autoimmune diseases like multiple sclerosis
(MS) and lupus.
Hair Regeneration -Research is exploring stem cell-based treatments for baldness and hair loss
disorders.

Biomolecules
Biomolecules are the biological molecules produced by the cells of the living organism. These are essential
for life, forming the building blocks of cells and organisms. They include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and
nucleic acids.

Carbohydrates

These are the biomolecules consists of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms, usually hydrogen and oxygen atom ratio
will be 2: [Link] includes sugars, fibers, and starch. They are found in grains, vegetables, fruits and in milk
and other dairy products.
 1. Physical Properties

Solubility: Simple carbohydrates (monosaccharides & some disaccharides) are soluble in water due to their hydroxyl (-
OH) groups.

Polysaccharides (e.g., starch, cellulose) are generally insoluble or form colloidal solutions.

Taste: Monosaccharides and disaccharides (e.g., glucose, fructose, sucrose) have a sweet taste.

Polysaccharides (e.g., starch, glycogen) are tasteless.

Optical Activity:Carbohydrates have chiral centers and can rotate plane-polarized light.

Dextrorotatory (+): Rotates light to the right (e.g., D-glucose).

Levorotatory (-): Rotates light to the left.

Hygroscopic Nature: Some carbohydrates, like sugars, absorb moisture from the air.

2. Chemical Properties

Reducing Nature: Reducing sugars (e.g., glucose, fructose, maltose) have a free aldehyde (-CHO) or ketone (-C=O)
group, allowing them to reduce Fehling’s or Benedict’s solution.

Non-reducing sugars (e.g., sucrose) do not react with these solutions.

Hydrolysis: Polysaccharides and disaccharides break down into monosaccharides in the presence of acids or enzymes.

Example: Starch → Maltose → Glucose.

Oxidation: Mild oxidation converts monosaccharides into acids (e.g., glucose to gluconic acid).

Complete oxidation releases energy in the form of ATP (cellular respiration).

Fermentation: Some carbohydrates (e.g., glucose, fructose) undergo fermentation to produce alcohol or organic acids
by microbial action.

Ester Formation: Hydroxyl (-OH) groups in carbohydrates react with acids to form esters.

3. Biological Properties

Energy Source: Carbohydrates provide quick energy (1 gram = 4 kcal).

Storage Function: Glycogen (animals) and starch (plants) store energy.

Structural Role:

• Cellulose (plants) provides strength to the cell wall.

• Chitin (fungi, insects) forms exoskeletons.

Cell Signaling: Glycoproteins and glycolipids are involved in cell recognition and immune response.

Function of carbohydrates
Simple carbohydrates, like monosaccharides and disaccharides, are quickly used for energy. Polysaccharides,
like starch and glycogen, store energy.

Structure
• Carbohydrates are structural components of cells and tissues.
• For example, cellulose is a structural component of plant cell walls, and chitin is a structural
component of arthropod and fungal cell walls.
• Digestion
• Fiber-rich carbohydrates improve digestive health by adding bulk to stool and helping it pass through
the body.
• The body breaks down carbohydrates into monosaccharides, which are then absorbed into the
bloodstream and used for energy.

Lipid metabolism
• Carbohydrates help with lipid metabolism, which is the process of oxidizing fatty acids to create
energy or synthesize new lipids.

Energy production

• Carbohydrates are the primary energy source for the body's cells.

• Glucose from carbohydrates is especially important for brain function.

• Many cells prefer glucose as an energy source over other compounds.

Brain function

• Carbohydrates provide energy to the brain, which can improve memory, concentration, and cognitive
performance.

• Complex carbohydrates can help support better sleep.

Digestion

• Fiber-rich carbohydrates can improve the health of the digestive system.

• Carbohydrates can help break down protein molecules.

Heart health

• Eating plenty of dietary fiber can benefit heart health and blood sugar levels.

• Eating excessive amounts of refined carbs may increase the risk of diabetes.

Industrial Applications of Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrates have a wide range of applications in various industries, including:

 • Food and Beverage: Carbohydrates are widely used as sweeteners, thickeners, and stabilizers in
food and beverage products. They are also used as energy sources in sports drinks and energy bars.

• Pharmaceuticals: Carbohydrates are used as excipients in pharmaceutical formulations to improve

the stability, solubility, and bioavailability of drugs. They are also used as a source of energy in
medical nutrition products.

• Cosmetics: Carbohydrates are used in cosmetic products, such as moisturizers, shampoos, and
conditioners, to provide hydration and improve skin and hair health.

• Biotechnology: Carbohydrates are widely used in the production of biodegradable plastics, biofuels,
and other renewable energy sources.

• Research: Carbohydrates are widely used as research tools in the fields of immunology, virology,
and cellular biology. They are used as ligands in protein- carbohydrate interactions and as probes to
study cellular signaling pathways.

Other uses

• Carbohydrates can help control weight if consumed in the right amounts.

• Carbohydrates can help prevent blood clots.

• Carbohydrates can help reduce the risk of cancer.

• Carbohydrates can help improve mood and appetite.

• Carbohydrates can help keep skin healthier.