Geography - High Court Clerk Exam
GEOGRAPHY STUDY NOTES
(TARGET: PUNJAB & HARYANA HIGH COURT CLERK EXAM)
1. Earth's Interior
▪ Crust: Outermost solid layer.
▪ Oceanic Crust: Thin (~5 km), made of Sima (Silica + Magnesium). Basaltic rocks.
▪ Continental Crust: Thick (~30 km), made of Sial (Silica + Aluminium). Granitic rocks.
▪ Mantle: Extends up to 2,900 km.
▪ Asthenosphere: Upper portion of mantle; highly viscous, mechanically weak, and ductile.
Main source of magma.
▪ Core: Innermost layer (radius ~3,500 km). Made of Nife (Nickel + Iron).
▪ Outer Core: Liquid state (responsible for Earth’s magnetic field).
▪ Inner Core: Solid state due to extreme pressure conditions.
Mantle
Crust Outer Core
Inner
Fig 1.1: Schematic Cross-Section of Earth's Interior Layers
2. Plate Tectonics
The lithosphere is divided into 7 major and several minor rigid plates moving over the fluid
asthenosphere.
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Geography - High Court Clerk Exam
Types of Plate Boundaries:
▪ Divergent Boundary: Plates pull apart. Forms Rift Valleys (e.g., East African Rift) and Mid-
Oceanic Ridges.
▪ Convergent Boundary: Plates collide. One subducts under the other. Forms Fold Mountains
(e.g., Himalayas formed by Indo-Australian & Eurasian plate collision).
▪ Transform Boundary: Plates slide past horizontally. Causes intense earthquakes (e.g., San
Andreas Fault ). No crust created/destroyed.
← → → ← ←
→
Divergent Convergent
Transform
Fig 2.1: Types of Tectonic Plate Margins
3. Types of Rocks & The Rock Cycle
A. Igneous Rocks (Primary Rocks)
▪ Formed by cooling and solidification of molten magma/lava.
▪ Intrusive: Cools slowly inside the crust. Large crystals. E.g., Granite, Gabbro.
▪ Extrusive: Cools rapidly on Earth's surface. Fine-grained. E.g., Basalt (forms Deccan Trap
soil).
B. Sedimentary Rocks
▪ Formed via lithification (deposition, compaction, cementation of sediments).
▪ Characterized by distinct layers/strata. Often contain fossils .
▪ E.g., Sandstone, Shale, Limestone, Coal.
C. Metamorphic Rocks
▪ Formed under high Pressure, Volume, and Temperature (PVT) changes.
▪ E.g., Limestone → Marble; Granite → Gneiss; Shale → Slate.
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Geography - High Court Clerk Exam
Igneous
Weathering Melting
Heat/Pressure
Sedimentary Metamorphic
Fig 3.1: Simplified Rock Cycle Dynamics
4. Volcanoes & Earthquakes
▪ Shield Volcanoes: Fluid basaltic lava; largest on Earth (e.g., Hawaiian Volcanoes). Low
explosivity.
▪ Composite Volcanoes: Viscous lava + pyroclastic materials. Highly explosive (e.g., Mt. Fuji ,
Mt. Vesuvius).
▪ Earthquake Focus (Hypocenter): The true point of origin inside Earth where energy is released.
▪ Epicenter: The point on the surface directly above the focus; experiences maximum damage.
▪ Seismic Waves:
▪ P-Waves (Primary): Longitudinal, fastest, travel through solids, liquids, and gases.
▪ S-Waves (Secondary): Transverse, slower, travel only through solids.
5. Weather vs. Climate
▪ Weather: Atmospheric condition of a specific place at a specific point in time (short-term, highly
dynamic). Elements: Temp, humidity, wind.
▪ Climate: Average weather pattern of a region over a long period, typically 30 years or more
(stable/long-term). Example: India has a Tropical Monsoon climate.
6. Major Landforms
▪ Fold Mountains: Tectonic compression zones (e.g., Alps, Rockies, Andes, Himalayas).
▪ Block Mountains: Created via vertical faulting displacement. Up-thrown blocks = Horsts ;
down-thrown blocks = Graben (e.g., Vosges in Europe).
▪ Plateaus: Elevated flat-topped tablelands. E.g., Tibetan Plateau (highest globally), Deccan
Plateau (mineral-rich).
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Geography - High Court Clerk Exam
▪ Plains: Low-lying flat lands formed by river depositional works. E.g., Indo-Gangetic Plains.
7. Important Rivers
▪ Indus: Originates near Mansarovar Lake (Tibet). Tributaries: Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej
( Panjnad ).
▪ Ganga: Formed by confluence of Alaknanda & Bhagirathi at Devprayag . Longest river in
India.
▪ Brahmaputra: Originates as Tsangpo (Tibet); enters India via Arunachal Pradesh as Dihang.
▪ Godavari: Called Dakshin Ganga . Longest peninsular river.
▪ Narmada & Tapi: West-flowing peninsular rivers draining into Arabian Sea; form Estuaries
instead of deltas.
▪ Nile & Amazon: Nile is the longest river globally; Amazon is the largest by water volume.
8. Quick Revision Facts (Exam Pointers)
Feature / Concept Key Core Fact for Exam
Deepest Point Mariana Trench (~11,000m), Pacific Ocean.
Moho Discontinuity Boundary separating the Crust and the Mantle.
Gutenberg
Boundary separating the Mantle and the Core.
Discontinuity
Earthquake Scales Richter Scale (Magnitude / Energy); Mercalli Scale (Intensity / Damage).
Zone of high volcanic & seismic activity surrounding the Pacific Plate
Pacific Ring of Fire
(>75% active volcanoes).
Sutlej River Entry Enters India through the Shipki La Pass in Himachal Pradesh.
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