CUET UG 2026

PHYSICS — CHAPTER 1

Electric Charges & Fields

Complete Notes + Formulas + CUET Tips

Based on: CUET Adda Nichod Series

Video Timestamp: 0:08:25 — 1:21:40
NCERT Class 12 Physics | Chapter 1

10 15+ 20+ 5–6 Qs

Topics Formulas CUET Tips Marks
1. Electric Charge — The Basics

1.1 What is Electric Charge?

Electric charge is a fundamental property of matter that causes it to experience a force when placed
near other charged matter. It is the source of all electric and magnetic phenomena.

⚡ Key Properties of Charge

• Charge is a scalar quantity — it has magnitude but no direction
• SI Unit: Coulomb (C)
• Two types: Positive (+) and Negative (−)
• Like charges REPEL each other | Unlike charges ATTRACT each other
• Charge is always conserved — it can neither be created nor destroyed
• Charge is quantised — it always exists in integral multiples of e

1.2 Conservation of Charge

The total electric charge of an isolated system always remains constant. Charges can be
transferred from one body to another but cannot be created or destroyed.

🎯 CUET ALERT: Conservation of charge is directly asked in CUET. Know: charge on a

system before = charge after any interaction.

1.3 Quantisation of Charge

Charge always exists as whole number multiples of the elementary charge e = 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C.

Quantisation q = ne n = ±1, ±2, ±3...

Where:
• n = any integer (positive or negative)
• e = 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C (charge of one electron/proton)
• Electrons carry negative charge (−e), protons carry positive charge (+e)

🎯 CUET ALERT: CUET often asks: 'How many electrons make 1 coulomb of charge?'
Answer: n = q/e = 1/(1.6×10⁻¹⁹) ≈ 6.25 × 10¹⁸ electrons.
2. Coulomb's Law

Coulomb's Law gives the electrostatic force between two point charges. It is the most fundamental
law of electrostatics.

COULOMB'S LAW
F = k·q₁·q₂ / r²
k = 1/(4πε₀) = 9 × 10⁹ N·m²/C²

Variables in Coulomb's Law:

Symbol Meaning / Value
F Electrostatic force between charges (in Newtons)
q₁, q₂ Magnitudes of the two point charges (in Coulombs)
r Distance between the two charges (in metres)
k Coulomb's constant = 9 × 10⁹ N·m²/C²
ε₀ Permittivity of free space = 8.85 × 10⁻¹² C²/N·m²

2.1 Important Characteristics of Coulomb's Force

• Central Force: Acts along the line joining the two charges
• Conservative Force: Work done is path-independent
• Inverse Square Law: F ∝ 1/r² — doubles if r halves, quadruples if r halves again
• Action-Reaction Pair: Forces on q₁ and q₂ are equal in magnitude, opposite in direction
• Mutual Force: Force exists in pairs — if q₁ attracts q₂, then q₂ equally attracts q₁

2.2 Coulomb's Law in Vector Form

Vector Form F₁₂ = k·q₁·q₂·r̂ ₁₂ / r² r̂ = unit vector

The direction of force depends on the signs of charges:

• Same sign charges (++ or −−): Force is repulsive (pushes apart)
• Opposite sign charges (+− or −+): Force is attractive (pulls together)

2.3 Superposition Principle

When multiple charges are present, the net force on any charge is the vector sum of all individual
Coulomb forces. Charges do not affect each other's individual forces.

Superposition F_net = F₁ + F₂ + F₃ + ... Vector sum

 🎯 CUET ALERT: Superposition principle is very commonly tested. For 3 charges, find
each force separately then add as vectors.

2.4 Comparison: Coulomb Force vs Gravitational Force

Property Comparison
Nature Coulomb: attractive OR repulsive | Gravitational: always
attractive
Formula F_E = kq₁q₂/r² | F_G = Gm₁m₂/r²
Constant k = 9×10⁹ N·m²/C² | G = 6.67×10⁻¹¹ N·m²/kg²
Strength Coulomb force is 10³⁶ times stronger than gravitational force
Medium Coulomb force depends on medium. Gravity does not.

🎯 CUET ALERT: Ratio of electric to gravitational force between electron and proton ≈
2.4 × 10³⁹ — electrostatic force is far stronger.

2.5 Effect of Medium — Relative Permittivity

When charges are placed in a medium other than vacuum, Coulomb's law is modified:
εᵣ = relative
In Medium F = k·q₁·q₂ / (εᵣ·r²) permittivity

• εᵣ (Relative Permittivity / Dielectric Constant) — always ≥ 1

• For vacuum/air: εᵣ = 1
• For water: εᵣ ≈ 80 (force becomes 80 times weaker in water than in air)

💡 Memory Tip: Greater the dielectric constant, weaker the electric force in that medium.
3. Electric Field

The electric field at a point in space is the force experienced per unit positive test charge placed at
that point. It is a vector quantity.

Electric Field E = F / q₀ Unit: N/C or V/m

3.1 Electric Field due to a Point Charge

Direction: away
Point Charge E = kQ / r² from +Q

• Direction of E: Away from positive charge, towards negative charge

• E follows inverse square law — decreases with distance
• E is zero infinitely far from any charge

3.2 Electric Field — Key Formulas Table

Situation Electric Field Formula
Point charge Q at distance r E = kQ/r² = Q/(4πε₀r²)
On axis of electric dipole (end-on) E = 2kp/r³ (for r >> a)
On equatorial line of dipole (broadside) E = kp/r³ (for r >> a)
Infinite line charge (linear charge E = λ/(2πε₀r)
density λ)
Infinite plane sheet (surface charge E = σ/(2ε₀)
density σ)
Between parallel plates E = σ/ε₀
Inside a conductor E = 0 (always)
On surface of conductor E = σ/ε₀ (perpendicular to surface)

🎯 CUET ALERT: E = 0 inside a conductor is asked every year. Also: surface of

conductor has E perpendicular to it.

3.3 Electric Field Lines — Properties

📏 Properties of Electric Field Lines
• Start from positive charges and end at negative charges
• Never intersect each other (if they did, E would have two directions at one point —
impossible)
• Closer lines → stronger field | Farther lines → weaker field
• They are continuous curves — no breaks in free space
• They do NOT form closed loops (unlike magnetic field lines which always close)
• They are perpendicular to the surface of a conductor
• Number of lines ∝ magnitude of charge
• Field lines have no physical existence — they are only a visual tool

🎯 CUET ALERT: 'Electric field lines form closed loops' is FALSE. This is a very
common wrong answer in MCQs. Only magnetic field lines form closed loops.
4. Electric Dipole

An electric dipole consists of two equal and opposite charges (+q and −q) separated by a small
distance 2a. It is a fundamental concept for understanding molecular polarity.

4.1 Dipole Moment

Unit: C·m
Dipole Moment p = q × 2a (Coulomb·metre)

• p is a vector quantity
• Direction: from negative charge to positive charge (−q to +q)
• SI Unit: C·m (Coulomb-metre)

4.2 Electric Field due to Dipole

Position Electric Field
On axial line (End-on position) E_axial = 2kp/r³ (for r >> a)
On equatorial line (Broadside-on) E_equatorial = kp/r³ (for r >> a)
Ratio E_axial = 2 × E_equatorial (at same distance r)
Direction on axial line Parallel to dipole moment p (same direction)
Direction on equatorial line Anti-parallel to dipole moment p (opposite direction)

🎯 CUET ALERT: E_axial = 2 × E_equatorial at the same distance — this ratio is asked
very frequently in CUET.

4.3 Dipole in a Uniform Electric Field

Torque on Dipole τ = pE sin θ = p × E θ = angle with E

• Maximum torque: when θ = 90° (dipole perpendicular to field) → τ_max = pE

• Zero torque: when θ = 0° or 180° (dipole parallel or anti-parallel to field)
• Stable equilibrium: θ = 0° (dipole aligned with field)
• Unstable equilibrium: θ = 180° (dipole anti-aligned with field)

Potential Energy U = −pE cos θ = −p · E Minimum at θ=0°

💡 Memory Tip: For torque, use sin θ. For potential energy, use −cos θ. Don't mix them up!
5. Gauss's Law

Gauss's Law is one of the most powerful tools in electrostatics. It relates the total electric flux
through a closed surface to the total charge enclosed within it.

GAUSS'S LAW
φ = q_enclosed / ε₀

5.1 Electric Flux

Electric Flux φ = E · A · cos θ Unit: N·m²/C or V·m

• φ (phi) = Electric flux through a surface

• E = Electric field magnitude
• A = Area of surface
• θ = Angle between E and the normal to the surface
• Maximum flux when E is perpendicular to surface (θ = 0°)
• Zero flux when E is parallel to surface (θ = 90°)

5.2 Applying Gauss's Law — Standard Results

Charge Configuration Electric Field Result
Point charge (at distance r) E = kq/r² = q/(4πε₀r²)
Infinite line charge (λ C/m) E = λ/(2πε₀r) — directed radially outward
Infinite plane sheet (σ C/m²) E = σ/(2ε₀) — uniform, perpendicular to sheet
Uniformly charged sphere: outside (r E = kQ/r² (same as point charge)
> R)
Uniformly charged sphere: on surface E = kQ/R²
(r = R)
Uniformly charged sphere: inside (r < E = kQr/R³ (increases with r)
R)
Hollow shell: inside (any r < R) E = 0 (zero everywhere inside)
Hollow shell: outside (r > R) E = kQ/r²
Inside a conductor E = 0 (always zero)

🎯 CUET ALERT: Most asked Gauss's Law MCQ: 'Charge q at centre of cube. Flux
through one face = q/6ε₀' (total flux = q/ε₀, divided by 6 faces).
5.3 Key Conclusions from Gauss's Law
📌 Must-Know Conclusions
• Electric field inside a hollow conducting shell = 0 (regardless of shape)
• Charge always resides on the OUTER surface of a conductor
• Field inside a conductor in electrostatic equilibrium = 0 always
• Flux through a closed surface depends ONLY on enclosed charge, not on charges outside
• If net enclosed charge = 0, total flux = 0 (but E need not be zero everywhere)
• Gauss's surface (Gaussian surface) is an imaginary surface, not a real one
6. Conductors in Electrostatic Equilibrium

6.1 Properties of Conductors in Static Conditions

Properties of Conductors (Electrostatics)
1. E = 0 inside the conductor — free electrons redistribute until internal field is zero
2. Any net charge resides on the OUTER surface only
3. E just outside the surface = σ/ε₀ (perpendicular to surface)
4. The entire conductor is at the same electric potential
5. Field lines are always perpendicular to conductor surface
6. Sharp points have higher charge density — lightning rods use this principle

6.2 Electrostatic Shielding

A hollow conductor shields its interior from external electric fields. This is the principle behind
Faraday cage.
• Faraday Cage: A hollow metallic enclosure that blocks external electric fields
• Sensitive electronic equipment is stored in metallic enclosures for this reason
• Car interiors, aircraft, and metal boxes act as Faraday cages during lightning

🎯 CUET ALERT: Electrostatic shielding / Faraday cage concept is asked in CUET.

Inside a metallic enclosure, E = 0 regardless of outside field.
7. Complete Formula Sheet — Chapter 1

⚡ ALL FORMULAS AT A GLANCE

Coulomb's Law F = kq₁q₂/r² k = 9×10⁹ N·m²/C²

εᵣ = relative
In Medium F = kq₁q₂/(εᵣr²) permittivity

Quantisation q = ne e = 1.6×10⁻¹⁹ C

Electric Field E = F/q₀ = kQ/r² Unit: N/C

Dipole Moment p = q·2a Direction: -q to +q

Torque on Dipole t = pE sinθ Max at θ = 90°

PE of Dipole U = -pE cosθ Min at θ = 0°

E on Axial Line E = 2kp/r³ r >> a

E on Equatorial r >> a; anti-parallel

E = kp/r³ to p
Line

Gauss's Law φ = q_enc/ε₀ Total flux

Electric Flux φ = EA cosθ Unit: N·m²/C

λ = linear charge
Line Charge E = λ/(2πε₀r) density

σ = surface charge
Sheet Charge E = σ/(2ε₀) density
 Always in
Inside Conductor E = 0 equilibrium

Perpendicular to
Conductor Surface E = σ/ε₀ surface
8. CUET Special — Most Asked Topics

🎯 Topics Asked Most Frequently in CUET (2022–2025)

1. Coulomb's Law — effect of doubling charge/distance on force
2. Electric field at midpoint between two equal and opposite charges
3. Properties of electric field lines (especially: 'do they form closed loops?' — NO)
4. Gauss's Law — flux through a face of cube with charge at centre
5. E = 0 inside a conductor and inside a hollow shell
6. Torque on a dipole in uniform electric field (τ = pE sinθ)
7. E_axial = 2 × E_equatorial at the same distance from dipole
8. Superposition principle — force on a charge due to multiple charges
9. Quantisation of charge — how many electrons make 1 C?
10. Dielectric constant / relative permittivity effect on force

8.1 Tricky MCQ Concepts — Don't Get These Wrong

Wrong Thinking Correct Answer
Electric field lines can intersect They NEVER intersect
E field lines form closed loops ONLY magnetic field lines form closed loops
E = 0 means no charge nearby E = 0 inside conductor even if charge is on its surface
Flux depends on shape of Gaussian Flux depends ONLY on enclosed charge, not surface
surface shape
Force in medium is same as in vacuum Force reduces by εᵣ times in a medium with dielectric
constant εᵣ
Dipole field direction is always along p On equatorial line, E is ANTI-parallel (opposite) to p
Charge can be created Charge is always conserved — it only transfers
E at centre of ring is not zero E at centre of uniformly charged ring IS zero by
symmetry

8.2 Quick Memory Tricks

💡 Memory Tip: GAUSS helps you find E for symmetric charge distributions (sphere, cylinder,
plane). Use it when symmetry exists.

💡 Memory Tip: Axial vs Equatorial: Axial = 2× stronger. Axial direction = same as p.

Equatorial direction = opposite to p.

💡 Memory Tip: Conductor properties: E inside = 0. Charge on outer surface only. Potential is
same throughout.

💡 Memory Tip: Electric field lines and field lines: think of field lines as arrows showing which
way a +ve test charge would move.
9. Quick Revision Questions — Self Test

Answer these without looking at notes first. All are CUET-style questions.

📝 Quick Fire Questions

Q1. Two charges +2C and +2C are 1m apart. Force = ? [4k N = 36×10 ⁹ N]
Q2. Charge q at centre of cube. Flux through each face = ? [q/6ε₀]
Q3. E inside a conducting sphere = ? [Zero]
Q4. Direction of dipole moment = ? [From −q to +q]
Q5. E_axial : E_equatorial at same distance = ? [2:1]
Q6. How many electrons in 1 C of charge? [6.25 × 10¹⁸]
Q7. Torque on dipole when aligned with E field (θ = 0°) = ? [Zero]
Q8. Do electric field lines form closed loops? [No — magnetic field lines do]
Q9. Force between charges when placed in water (εᵣ = 80)? [80× weaker]
Q10. What is the unit of electric dipole moment? [C·m (Coulomb-metre)]

Score Tracker
Questions Attempted Score / 10
_____ / 10 _____ / 10

Next Step After These Notes

1. Re-watch 0:08:25 – 1:21:40 of the Nichod Series video
2. Do the Chapter 1 test from the PCM Practice Test Book
3. Revise this formula sheet the night before your exam
Target: 8–10 correct in Chapter 1 test → Move to Chapter 2