Chapter 2: Reproduction

A. The most critical characteristic of living organisms: reproduction

B. Reproductive success is a feature of an individual while biological fitness is a feature of an allele in a population.
C. They are the two ways organisms can reproduce. Differences between between sexual and asexual reproduction

Item Sexual Asexual

Number of parent Two parents Only one parent
1. Fusion of Involve the meeting of special sex cells called gametes Does not involve
gametes (sperm and egg), passing genetic material from both
parents to the offspring.
2. Variations Haploid gamete cells from each parent produce a. Parent cell replicates and divides to create
genetically unique offspring.. genetically identical offspring.
b. Offsprings are identical to each other
3. Advantages a. It provides genetic diversity that some offspring a. Enables organisms to reproduce quickly without
may possess random variations that make them having to find a mating partner.
better suited to new and changing conditions, with b. Being genetically identical may give organisms a
a better chance of survival. competitive advantage if they live in an environment to
b. Harmful mutations may be removed from the which they are perfectly well adapted.
population
c. Offspring may differ in their requirements due to
the variation in the population and so there may be
less competition for the same resources among
offspring

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 4. Disadvantages a. Demands a greater expenditure of time and a. The offspring will have no variation
energy. b. Offsprings are prone to sudden changes in the
b. Two organisms are required environment, resulting in the survival of few, if any.

5. Common Multicellular Unicellular

organism

6. Example Human, dogs Ameba,Bacteria,plants,yeast

D. Bacteria
1. Asexual reproduction
2. Has a cell wall
3. No nucleus
E. Breeding seasons
Item Seasonal breeders (oestrus) Continuous breeders
1. Period Mating occurs only during periods of female Mating occurs throughout the year, where female fertility
fertility, which is limited to once or twice a year. occurs in a cycle that repeats throughout the year.
2. Advantages a. Usually born when temperatures are warm a. The ability to reproduce all year around.
and food is plentiful, increasing the chance
of offspring surviving.
b. Parents reserve more energy
3. Examples Sheep and cattle Pig, rats

F. Hormones for human reproduction

1. Hormones are chemical substances that act as messengers in the body, coordinating many aspects of functioning, including
metabolism and reproduction, so that actions within the body are synchronised.
2. Hormones play a vital role in all aspects of the development and functioning of the male and female reproductive organs or
the development of secondary sex characteristics.
3. The reproductive organs in mammals are present at birth, but only mature and begin their reproductive function when
stimulated by hormones secreted during puberty.

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4. Gametogenesis 配子發生: the process by which gametes are produced in the male and female gonads (organs).

Type Secreted by Function

a. GnRH Made by hypothalamus Cause pituitary gland in the brain to make and secrete
LH and FSH
b. Follicle Secreted from the pituitary gland stimulates the maturation of follicles in the ovaries of
stimulating females during the follicular phase.
Hormone (FSH)
c. Luteinising Secreted from the pituitary gland. i. Promotes final maturation of the ovarian follicle,
Hormone (LH) ovulation and development of the corpus luteum in
females.
ii. Stimulates estrogen and progesterone.
d. Oestrogens: i. They are present in both males and females, i. Follicular phase:
Sex hormones where it plays a bigger role in women’s bodies. ● Cause a surge in the production of LH
ii. Follicular phase: Produced by ovary ● Control and mature ova(egg) in the ovaries
iii. The luteinising phase: produced by the corpus each month.
luteum in the ovary. ii. The luteinising phase: prepare the uterus for
iv. Pregnancy: implantation of a fertilised egg.
● Secreted by corpus luteum for the first 3 iii. Pregnancy:
months of pregnancy. ● Maintain pregnancy and stimulate fetal maturation.
● After 3 months, secreted by the placenta (Fetal: 胎)
iv. Develop secondary sex characteristics such as
enlarged breasts.

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e. Progestogens i. The luteinising phase: i. The luteinising phase:
Sex hormones ● Released by corpus luteum in the ovary. ● Prepare the endometrium (lining of the uterus) for
ii. Pregnancy implantation of fertilised ovum and pregnancy.
● Secreted by corpus luteum for the first 3 ii. Pregnancy
months of pregnancy. ● Support foetal development
● After 3 months, secreted by placenta ● Reduce the risk of the foetal being distributed by
uterine contractions.
● Reduce the mother’s immune response to foetal
antigens.
● Stimulates the secretion of milk in mammary
glands.
● Drops in its levels play a role in initiating
menstruation.
f. Oxytocin i. Pregnancy and delivery
Female Promote coordinated contraction of the smooth muscle
of the uterus and softening of the cervix so that the
baby can be born
g. Human chorionic Secreted by developing embryo i. Presence as an evidence to confirm a pregnancy
gonadotropin ii. Maintains the corpus luteum, which in turn helps
(HCG) maintain the endometrium.
Female
j. Androgens i. Teste secrete the androgen (testosterone) to i. Control the development and functioning of male
Male produce sperms. sex organs.
ii. Develop secondary sex characteristics such as
deepening of the male voice

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Positive
Feedback Negative
Feedback

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G. Sexual reproduction in mammals
1. The ovarian cycle:
a. For humans, the cycle repeats around every 28 days.
b. Control the production and maturation of gametes (ova) in the ovaries.
c. Female babies are born with all the eggs that they will produce during their lifetime, but these eggs are immature and have
partly developed in their ovaries.
d. Menarche: During puberty, the ovarian and menstrual cycles begin.
e. The ova in the ovaries become surrounded by a single layer of cells that envelop them and begin to divide, resulting in the
formation of primary (dormant) follicles in the ovary.
f. Hormones (FSH,LH, Oestrogens) that are secreted during puberty (about 36-40 yrs) trigger the development and maturation

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 of ova each month (except during periods of pregnancy), until menopause is reached.
g. At the start of each monthly cycle, a few follicles begin to develop.
2. The menstrual cycle
a. It accompanies the ovarian cycle.
b. An average menstrual cycle repeats every 28 days.
3. The ovarian cycle and the menstrual cycle- phases-a series of regular and natural changes in the body
Phase Processes Results
a. The first 14 days

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I. Ovarian cycle-The follicular phase i. This phase begins when your body’s i. Ovulation
hormone control centre, ● The Graafian follicle bursts,
the hypothalamus, sends a message releasing the egg, which is
to the pituitary gland at the base of waiting to be fertilized in a uterine
your brain. tube.
ii. The pituitary then releases follicle- ● It usually occurs mid-cycle, at
stimulating hormone (FSH). about day 14 in a 28-day
iii. FSH stimulates your ovaries to menstrual cycle.
produce 5 to 20 tiny pods called ● Once released, the female ovum
follicles. Inside each follicle sits an is only viable for 12-24 hours.
immature egg. These follicles grow ● Sperm can survive in the uterus
during this phase of your cycle. for about five days.
iv. Eventually, one of these follicles ● If the sperm are present,
becomes dominant. The other fertilisation may occur.
follicles start to wither away and are ● The levels of oestrogen and
reabsorbed into your body. progesterone are optimised
v. The follicle cells secrete fluid to push during the ovulation cycle to
the egg to one side of the follicle. create ideal conditions for
vi. The dominant follicle moves to the implantation.
surface of the ovary and creates a ii. The LH surge also stimulates the
bulge. next phase of the ovarian cycle, the
vii. The dominant follicle takes about 10- luteinizing phase.
14 days to become mature to be a
Graafian follicle.
viii. The cells lining the follicle secrete
oestrogen, which causes the lining of
the uterus (endometrium) to grow.
ix. FSH works on a negative feedback
loop with estrogen. Rising estrogen
levels send a signal to your pituitary
gland to stop FSH production to
prevent other follicles from growing
and only one egg matures in a cycle.
x. This also sends a signal to the
pituitary gland to produce a surge in 8
the production of LH, which results in
ovulation.
xi. This phase typically takes place from
days six to 14.
II. Menstrual cycle-Menses (the [Link] lasts from day one to day i. The endometrium (lining of the uterus) is
menstrual period) five. shed out through the vagina if pregnancy
[Link] first day of menses marks the has not occurred.
beginning of the follicular phase, ii. This is accompanied by bleeding, which
which ends on the day of ovulation is known as menstruation.

III. Menstrual cycle-pre-ovulation i. A new endometrial lining forms in the

uterus over about 5-12 days

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IV. Ovarian cycle-The luteinising phase i. It begins after ovulation. i. Progesterone:
Menstrual cycle-Secretion ii. When the burst follicle in the ovary The corpus luteum (plural)
Menstrual cycle-Pre-menstruation enlarges and changes colour, secretes a high level of
building up the corpus luteum. progesterone and a lower level of
iii. Lasts usually 14 days. oestrogen, which acts on the
uterus, preparing the endometrium
for implantation of the fertilized
ovum and pregnancy.
ii. With both oestrogen
and progesterone, the negative
feedback mechanism comes into
play to inhibit the production of
FSH and LH preventing any
follicles from developing until just
before the next menstruation.
iii. If the egg becomes fertilized by a
sperm and attaches itself to the
uterine wall, the woman becomes
pregnant.
iv. If pregnancy does not occur,
oestrogen and progesterone levels
drop, corpus luteum degenerates,
and the endometrium of the uterus
is shed during the menstrual
period.
v. It ends with menstruation.

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H. Every species has a characteristic number of chromosomes per cell. The chromosome number is constant for each species and does
not change from one generation to the next. For example, human 46 chromosomes.
I. Meiosis: A type of cell division. It occurs in the sexual reproductive organs of a plant and animal, results in the formation of gametes
(sex cells). Figure 2.3 Example P.81 Figure 3.3
1. Males make sperm cells and females make egg cells in meiosis.
2. Meiosis I: diploid cell divides into two haploid cells, each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell. (e.g. egg or sperm)
3. Meiosis II: The two cells each divide again, resulting in four haploid cells.
4. It gives rise to gametes that transmit genetic material from one generation to the next during sexual reproduction----each gamete
contains only one set of chromosomes.

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 5. Ensures the chromosome number of each species is maintained (not doubled) during sexual reproduction.
6. Cross over: occurred in both eggs or perm chromosomes.
J. Mitosis divides the diploid zygote to become an embryo with identical body cells that have the diploid number of chromosomes. It
involves the division of body cells into two daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell. Example P.81 Figure 3.3
1. No sex cells or gametes
2. Unicellular organisms-cell division by asexual binary-one organism between two.
3. Multicellular organisms-cell division-formation of two new identical cells-the growth of the organism.
4. Repair of damaged tissue and replacement of worn out cells
5. Genetic stability-ensure the precise and equal distribution of chromosomes to each daughter nucleus.
K. Haploid cells are those that have only a single set of chromosomes while diploid cells have two sets of chromosomes.
L. Haploid cells-sex cells (only one set of chromosomes)
M. Diploid cells: somatic cells (body or non-reproductive cells).
N. Sexual reproduction-offsprings get 1 set of chromosomes from father(haploid), one set from mother(haploid)-fertilization-fertilized
egg(zygote)-restore the chromosomes number from haploid to diploid-divided by mitosis-embryo-with diploid number of chromosomes.
Figure 2.3 P36
2n/2-1n-meiosis
1n+1n=2n-fertilization and mitosis

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O. Sexual reproductive strategies:
1. Unisexual vs Bisexual
Item Unisexual Bisexual (Hermaphrodites)
a. Individual Separate male and female individuals Each individual has both male and female organs
b. Suitable i. for species with population densities iii. for species with low population densities
ii. where finding a male is easy iv. where finding a male is difficult
c. Disadvantage Less Expand larger amounts of energy to grow and maintain two
s sets of reproductive organs
d. Example Papaya, coconut flowers, pumpkin,human Coral,starfish, tapeworm

2. There are two types of sexual fertilisation in animals. External vs Internal fertilisation
Item External Internal
a. Suitable For organisms that reproduce in an aquatic terrestrial organisms
environment or a very moist environment

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b. Union Sperm and egg unite outside female body, Sperm and egg unite within the female body, usual organisms
such as in open water environments that live mostly or completely on land.
c. Process Male and Female release gametes The male inserts sperm into the female’s reproductive tract via
simultaneously or similar time. penis or cloaca.

d. Chance of Low, because male gametes are released into High because male gametes are released into a confined space
fertilization a large open area where there is less chance where there is more chance of successfully uniting with female
of successfully uniting with female gametes. gametes
e. Environment External, is prone to environmental elements i. Egg may develop a shell and be laid in external
for zygotes such as temperature, infection environment or
ii. Egg continue to develop inside the female’s body
iii. Less prone to to environmental elements
f. Breeding More frequent due to the lower fertilization Seasonal and less frequent due to higher fertilization success
frequency success rate rate and greater energy costs
g. Advantages i. Requires less time and energy required i. Protect gametes from dehydration and loss to external
of the parents to take care of the elements
offspring. ii. Fewer eggs are required for the survival of a sufficient
ii. Wide dispersal of young,reducing number of offspring.
competition for food and living space. iii. High chance of fertilisation.

h. Disadvantages i. a larger number of gametes must be i. High energy requirement to care for offsprings
produced to ensure that some young ii. . Less offspring produced
survive.
ii. Low chance of fertilisation
i. Example Fish,earthworms,Staghorn coral Insects,mammals, reptiles, birds, plants
i. Ovoviviparous: lay eggs that hatch within the mother’s
body-snakes
ii. Oviparous: lay eggs that continue to develop after being
laid: reptiles, birds,
iii. Viviparous: young stay in the female body until ready-
human beings

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P. Sexual reproduction in plants
1. Pollination-Pollinating agent

a. Pollination: Male sperm cells in pollen-transfer from anthers- stigma, female part of a flower
b. -A pollen tube germinates and grows-carry male sperm cells to an ovule, which contained in the ovary-fertilization
2. Fertilization and seed production
a. The fertilized ovule develops, protected within the ovary
b. The ovule contain an embryo (seed)
c. The surrounding ovary grows to become a fruit
3. Difference between cross pollination and self pollination
Item Cross pollination Self pollination
a. Ways of reproduction Sexual reproduction Asexual reproduction

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 b. Process Between plants i. Same plant
ii. Grow in areas where insects or other animals
that visit plants are absent or very few in number
c. Pollinators need Not need
d. Advantages Increase genetic variation and ensure Less energy as there is no requirement for the plant to
survival produce structures to attract pollinators. Eg colored
petals.
e. Disadvantages Requirement for the plant to produce Less variation that reduce the chance for continuity of
structures to attract pollinators. Eg colored species
petals.

4. Different pollinators
Item abiotic biotic
a. Example Wind or water Insects,birds, mammals
b. Process Large quantities of pollen are produced Less required
c. Suitable: Plants i. Pollen light in weight Flower scent, color, markings, shape are important
ii. Stigmas large and spread out in a feathery in attracting animals
manner to trap pollen
d. Advantages Spend energy directly on pollen rather than on i. Effective
attracting pollinators with flowers and nectar. ii. One to one relationship reduces wastage of
pollen
e. Disadvantages Efficient
5. Seed Wide Dispersal Advantages
a. Prevent overcrowding and competition for light, water and soil nutrients
b. Increases the chances of continuity of the species in other locations
6. Germination: the embryo begins to grow and produce a young root to absorb water and soil nutrients.
Q. Asexual reproduction
1. Alternation of generations: Many organisms, including protists, fungi and plants alternate between sexual and asexual reproduction
as a normal part of their life cycle.
2. Asexual reproduction in plants
a. Vegetable propagation: New individuals arise from portions of the roots, stems, leaves or buds of adult individuals

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 and are genetically identical to their parents. Eg carrots, beetroot.
i. Perennating organs: underground organs such as roots or stems that contain enough stored food to sustain the
plant in a dormant state from one season to the next. These organs allow plants to survive adverse conditions
such as cold or drought.
ii. Vegetative propagation techniques are often used in agriculture such as seedless grapes, watermelons, mangoes
to increase the production of crops when seeds are unavailable and/ or difficult to germinate.
✔ Examples:
● Modified stems: Runners: strawberries, spinifex
● Modified stems:Rhizomes: ginger, ferns
● Modified roots: reeds, wattles and blackberries
● Apomixis: produce offspring from special generative tissues, without involving fertilization or production of
seeds. Kangaroo grass, lemon and orange trees
3. Asexual reproduction in other organisms
a. Budding: an adult organism gives rise to a small bud, which separates from the parent and grows into a new individual.
i. Yeast(酵母):unicellular, example : fungi
ii. Jellyfish, hydra and brain coral: multicellular
b. Binary fission: splitting into two
i. Unicellular organisms: bacteria (prokaryotes), protists (unicellular eukaryotes)
ii. Advantage of enabling rapid growth over a short period of time in adverse conditions as it requires only one parent.
iii. No genetic diversity
c. Spores
i. Sporangia: produce very large numbers of spores
ii. Multicellular fungi: mould and mushrooms.
iii. When environmental conditions are favourable, fungi reproduce asexually.
iv. Changes in the environment will induce a sexual reproductive phase in fungi.

R. Manipulation of reproduction in agriculture

1. The purpose of this human intervention is to improve the quality and yield of food
2. Reproductive technology: any use of technology to assist and improve reproduction.

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2019 Q27
1. Asexual reproduction: budding, binary fission, spores
2. Q27 (b) procedure

2020 Q25
a. What conclusion can be drawn from the data?
There is no difference between the number of young produced and the mode of fertilization as
1. as the mean numbers using the two modes are only slightly different (Internal: 43 and External: 40).
2. there is too much variation (the standard deviation is too large: Internal 55; External 32).
b. Justify an improvement to the students’ experimental design to test the same hypothesis
A large number of species need to be included in each mode as currently 6 species included for each group is an insufficient sample size
and the data is not representative. For example, addition of species such as coral in the external fertilization could enlarge the sample
size.
c. Advantage of animals of using external fertilization
External fertilization requires less time and energy required of the parents to take care of the offsprings as this will occur outside the body.
With a larger number of gametes must be produced to ensure that some young survive.

MC Questions & Answers

1. [Link]
2. [Link]

[Link]

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