Irrigation Engineering

Chapter 4: Diversion Headwork and River Training

4.1 Head works – types, functions and components, silt excluder and silt ilt
extractor
5.1.1 Head works
Hydraulic structures, which help in supply of water to off taking canals, are called head works.

Head works are of two types:

a) Storage headwork
The headworksconstructed to store water during period of excess water and release it during lean
season is called storage headwork. Storage of water is achievedby construction of dam across the
river, which creates reservoir in the u/s area of river. Dams are of high heights, usually

1
Irrigation Engineering

permanentin structure and can be constructed of concrete, stone, earth and rockfill. However,
there is risk of foundation failure and submergence of large area on the upstream of dam site.
b) Diversion headwork
These are solely constructed to divert river water towards canal to ensure regulated, continuous
supply of silt free water. To raise water level in river so as to provide sufficient head for water
diversion, a weir or barrage is constructed across the river. Weir/barrage is of comparatively low
height and thus, there is no/less possibility of land submergence.
Function/purposes of diversion headworks:
i. To raise water level
ii. To regulate flow of water into canal
iii. To control silt entry into canal
iv. To reduce fluctuation in level of supply
v. To store water for small periods of short supplies

5.1.2 Components of headworks

a) Divide wall
It is long masonry or concrete wall constructed perpendicular to weir axis and divides the river
channel into two portions. Divide wall extends on upstream beyond the beginning of canal head
regulator and separates the weir portion from undersluice section. The frontal face is madesemi-
circular to have minimum resistance to water flow.
Functions:
i. Necessary to separate 2 floors levels since floor of under sluice is generally kept lower than
main weir
ii. Provides comparatively still pocket in front of head regulator which helps in silt deposition
iii. Serves as one side wall of fish ladder
iv. Prevents cross current and flow parallel to weir
b) Fish ladder

Fish ladder is a passage provided for safe entry and exit

of fish in summer and winter as per environment
needed. It reduces the flow energy with the help of
baffle walls and keeps the velocity within 3 m/s. In big
rivers, fishes migrate from u/s to d/s during winter in
search of warm water and from d/s to u/s during monsoon in search of clear water.
c) Under sluice/ scouring sluice
Under sluice helps to maintain a less turbulent pocket in front of canal head regulator so that the
sediments settle down and comparatively clear water could be diverted to the canal system. Crest
level of under sluice is kept slightly above the deepest river bed level and 1 to 1.5 m below the sill

2
Irrigation Engineering

of canal head regulator. It is provided with gates to dispose off excess flood water and heavy silt
periodically to the downstream. Discharge capacity should be at least twice the full discharge
capacity of main canal.
Functions:
i. Controls silt entry into the canal
ii. Passes the dry weather flow and low floods without dropping the weir shutters
iii. Provides greater waterway for floods thus lowering the flood levels (10-15% of maxm flood)
d) Canal head regulator
It is a structure constructed at head of canal taking off from the reservoir/river.
Functions:
i. To control entry of silt
ii. To shut out the river flood
iii. To stop supply into canal for repair and maintenance work
e) River training works
These are the structures constructed to ensure smooth and axial flow of water towards weir
portion. It consists of guide bunds and marginal bunds.
Guide banks:It forces river into a restricted channel ensuring smooth and almost axial flow.
Marginal bunds:It is provided on u/s side to protect the additional area from submergence
f) Weir/barrage
It is solid obstruction put across river to raise water level to facilitate diversion of water into off
taking canal.
In weir, most of the ponding of water is achieved by raised crest while a smaller part or nil part of it
is achieved by shutter/gates. Afflux caused due to flood is quite high due to permanent raised crest
in weir system.
In barrage, most of the ponding is done by gates while a smaller part or nil of it is achieved by
raised crest.
Comparison between weir and barrage

Weir Barrage

• high crest level • Low crest level

• simple construction • relatively complicated structure

• lower cost of construction • Comparatively costlier

3
Irrigation Engineering

• Doesn’t have full control over • Effective control over the river flow

• More silting on upstream • Less silting on upstream

• Bridges cannot be constructed • Bridges for transportation can be constructed

5.1.3 Silt excluder

Silt extractor is a device by which silt is excluded from entering the canal. It is constructed on river
bed in front of head regulator at right angle to the axis of canal or parallel to the head regulator. It
consists of a number of rectangular tunnels on floor of under sluice pocket. The roof slab of
excluder tunnels are kept at same level as that of head regulator’s crest.

Bottom layer of water charged with silt passes down the tunnel to d/s and clear water over the
roof enters the canal. The longest tunnel nearest to head regulator is at least of same length as the
width of canal head regulator and after that tunnel’s length decreases in series of steps as shown

4
Irrigation Engineering

in figure. Velocity of 2- 4.5 m/s must be maintained in the silt excluder to allow silt to settle. The
entrance of tunnel is provided with bell mouth shape to increase the zone of suction.

5.1.4 Silt ejector or extractor

Silt ejector or extractor is a hydraulic structure constructed on canal headreach, a little distance
downstream from head regulator to eject silt that has already entered the canal system. It
removes the water from the bottom layers of the canal through tunnels spanning the whole width
of the canal and discharges it into some nearby drain or back to river.

Silt ejector, as shown in figure, consists of a horizontal diaphragm slab, a little distance above canal
bed which separates out the bottom layers. Under the slab, there are tunnels which extract highly

5
Irrigation Engineering

silted bottom water into escape canal. Entire span is divided into number of compartments by
means of streamlined vanes, to accelerate flow through them.
5.2Conditions and causes of failure of hydraulic structures in alluvial formation
Seepage flow
Whenever hydraulic structures like dam, weirs, barrages, regulators etc are founded on pervious
foundation, it is subjected to seepage of water. Thus, we can say that seepage is inevitable in
earthen dam. Water seeping through and below the body of hydraulic structure endangers its
stability. Uncontrolled or concentrated seepage may lead to piping and ultimately the failure of
dam. Study shows that seepage failure has accounted for more than 1/3rd of earth dam failures in
the past.
Seepage leads to failure of structure by,
a) Piping
Piping is progressive erosion and subsequent removal of soil grains from the body of dam or its
foundation. It occurs when water retains sufficient residual force at the emerging downstream end
of work, lifting up the soil particles. It may be through body or foundation of dam.
Piping failure may be prevented by,
i. Providing sufficient length of impervious floor
ii. Providing piles/cut off walls at d/s end
Piping through foundation

In highly permeable strata of coarse sand or gravel, water may start seeping at huge rate. This
concentrated flow may erode the soil, creating a conduit or pipe through the soil below
foundation. The dam may sink into this hollow, so formed, causing its failure.
Piping through dam body

6
Irrigation Engineering

When concentrated flow channels get developed in the dam body, the soil may be removed slowly
leading to the formation of hollows in dam body. Flow channels may develop due to faulty
construction, insufficient compaction, shrinkage cracks, burrowing animals etc.
b) Direct uplift
Water seeping below the structure exerts an uplift pressure on the floor of structure. If the weight
of floor is insufficient to resist the uplift pressure, the structure will fail by a rupture of a part of the
floor.
Uplift failure may be prevented by,
i. Providing impervious floor of sufficient length
ii. Providing impervious floor of sufficient thickness
5.2 Bligh’s, Lanes and Khosla’s theory
5.3.1 Bligh’s creep theory
According to Bligh, the creep is caused by differential head across a structure. Percolating water
follows the outline of base of foundation or, water creeps along the bottom contour of the
foundation. The length of path, thus travelled by water is called creep length

If HL is total head loss between u/s and d/s and L is the creep length. Head loss per unit of creep
length is called hydraulic gradient or exit gradient
Thus, mathematically,
Hydraulic gradient = HL/L
7
Irrigation Engineering

From figure, creep length is given by,

L = 2d1 +2d2 + 2d3 +L1 +L2
= b +2(d1 +d2 +d3)
The loss of head is proportional to the length of creep. If sufficient creep length is provided using
vertical cut off, head causing creep can be destroyed. So, safety against piping can be ensured by
providing sufficient creep length, given by,
L = C×HL
where,
HL = total head loss between u/s & d/s
C = Bligh’s coefficient depending on soil type
Values of Bligh’s coefficient, C

Type of soil Bligh’s coefficient, C

Fine sand 15

Course grained sand 12

Sand mixed with gravel and boulders 5-9

Light sand and mud (silt) 8

Safe against uplift by Bligh

The ordinate of HGL above bottom of floor represents uplift water head at each point. The uplift
pressure must be balanced by weight of floor in order to prevent failure by uplift. That is achieved
by providing floor of sufficient thickness
Let, h’ be the ordinate of HGL at any point above bottom of floor.
Uplift pressure at that point = γw× h’
Downward pressure due to weight of concrete of thickness t, = (γwG) ×t per unit length and width
of weir
Then, for equilibrium,
γw× h’ = (γwG) × t
h’ =Gt
Subtracting thickness on both sides, we get,
h’-t = Gt –t = t (G-1)
8
Irrigation Engineering

t = (h’ –t)/(G -1)

t = h/(G -1)
Where, h is the ordinate of HGL line above top of the floor and G is specific gravity of floor (For
concrete, G =2.4).
The floor thickness thus calculated is applicable only for d/s floor. The water standing on u/s floor
is more than sufficient to counterbalance the uplift caused by seeping water and thus nominal
floor thickness can be kept on u/s floor. The floor thickness on downstream is generally increased
by 33% to allow a suitable factor of safety.
Limitations of Bligh’s theory
i. He made no distinction between horizontal and vertical creep
ii. This method holds good as long as horizontal distance between piles is greater than twice
their depth
iii. Bligh did not specify the necessity of providing a sheet pile at d/s end
iv. Loss of head does not take place in same proportion as explained by Bligh

5.3.2 Lane’s weighted creep theory

According to Lane, the horizontal creep is less effective in reducing uplift than the vertical creep.
So, he suggested a weightage factor of 1/3 for horizontal creep as against 1 for vertical creep

Lane’s creep length is given by,

Ll = 2d1 +(1/3)L1 +2d2 +(1/3)L2 +2d3
= (1/3)b +2(d1 +d2 +d3)
To ensure safety against piping, creep length should not be less than C1HL
Where,
HL is head loss across the structure
C1 is lane’s creep coefficient

9
Irrigation Engineering

Lane’s coefficient for different soil types:

Type of soil Lane’s coefficient, C1

Very fine sand or silt 8.5

Fine sand 7.0

Course sand 5.0

Gravel and sand 3.5 to 3.0

Boulders, gravel and sand 2.5 to 3

Clayey soil 3.0 to 1.6

5.3.3 Khosla’s theory principles

i. Seepage water does not creep along the bottom of floor as stated by creep theory. Instead it
moves along a set of streamlines as shown in figure below.

Two sets of curves, viz. streamlines and equipotent lines, intersect each other orthogonally.
Equipotential lines are lines joining points of equal residual head and streamlines represent
the path along which water flows through the sub soil.
ii. Seepage water exerts a force at each point inthe direction of flow and tangential to the
streamlines
iii. The outer face of end sheet piles are much more effective than the inner ones and
horizontal length of floor
iv. If the intermediate piles are smaller in length than outer piles, they are ineffective
v. It is absolutely essential to have a reasonably deep vertical cut off at the d/s as well to
prevent piping

10
Irrigation Engineering

Khosla’s method of independent variables

For design of hydraulic structures on pervious foundation, Khosla developed a quick, simple and
accurate approach called method of independent variables. The complex profile is broken into a
simpler profile each of which can be solved mathematically. These profiles are used to determine
percentage pressure at the various key points.
Key points are junctions of floor and pile line on either sides and bottom point of pile line and
bottom corners in case of depressed floor.
Most useful simple profiles are:
a. A straight horizontal floor of negligible thickness with a sheet pile on d/s and u/s end

b. A straight horizontal floor of negligible thickness with a sheet pile at some intermediate point

c. A straight horizontal floor depressed below the bed but without any vertical cut off

11
Irrigation Engineering

Corrections
The percentage pressures calculated at key points are valid for simple profiles only. They are valid
for complex profiles only when necessary corrections are applied for interference due to nearby
pile, slope and thickness of floor. The corrections are calculated as under.
a) Correction for mutual interference
The correction C applied to percentage of seepage head due to this effect is given by,

Correction is positive for points backward in direction of flow and is negative for points forward in
direction of flow.

For example, for influence of pile 2 on pile 1, the correction at C1 shall be positive, since C1 is in
rear side. Similarly, considering the influence of pile 1 on pile 2, the correction at E2 shall be
negative since E2 is in forward direction of flow.

12
Irrigation Engineering

b) Correction for thickness of floor

In standard simple profile, floor is assumed to be of negligible thickness. So, calculated percentage
pressures are applied to the top levels of floor whereas the actual junction points E and C are at
bottom of floor. Hence, correction has to be applied for floor thickness as well, as under.

(φD1 – φC1 )
Correction for C =
𝑑𝑑
× 𝑡𝑡 (positive correction)
(φE1 – φD1 )
Correction for E =
𝑑𝑑
× 𝑡𝑡 (negative correction)
Where, d is total depth of pile including the thickness of floor.
c) Correction for the slope of the floor
Corrections for slope are applicable only to key points of pile fixed at either start or end of the
slope. Correction applied for sloping floor is positive for down slope and negative for up slope.

Correction for slope = correction factor × bs/b1

where,
bs = horizontal length of floor
b1 = distance between two piles between which sloping floor is located
Correction factors for standard slopes:

13
Irrigation Engineering

Exit gradient
For a floor length of b and vertical cut off of depth d at d/s end, exit gradient is given by,

H = maximum seepage head

d = depth of d/s cut off
Thus calculated exit gradient should be less than safe/permissible exit gradient. Otherwise, the
structure will be unsafe against piping failure.
In above equation, if d =0, exit gradient, GE, is infinite. So, it is essential to provide a vertical cut off
at the d/s end to avoid piping.
5.4 Cross drainage structures, conditions for their application and designs
5.4.1 Cross drainage structures
The structures which are constructed at the crossing of canal and natural drain are called cross
drainage structures. They are constructed to dispose off natural drainage water without
intercepting the continuous canal supply. These structures are generally very expensive and should
be avoided as far as possible. To minimize C/D works, canal should be aligned along ridge line/
watershed as far as possible.
Different types of cross drainage structures depending on the position and elevation of canal and
drainage are as follows.
a) C/D works carrying canal over drainage
– Aqueduct
– Syphon aqueduct
b) C/D works carrying drainage over canal

14
Irrigation Engineering

– Super passage
– Canal syphon
c) Canal and drainage crossing at same level
– Level crossing
– Canal inlet and outlet
A. Aqueduct
An aqueduct is constructed when drain is sufficiently below the bottom of canal, such that
drainage water flows freely under gravity. In such case, canal water is taken across drainage in a
trough supported on piers/abutments as shown in figure below. An inspection road is generally
provided alongside

B. Syphon aqueduct
A siphon aqueduct is constructed when HFL of drainage is higher than the canal bed level. In such
case, HFL of drainage is depressed as it passes under the canal trough under syphonic action. This
type of C/D structure is preferred when drainage is small compared to the canal capacity. Drainage
bed is generally depressed by providing sloping apron on both sides.

15
Irrigation Engineering

During heavy flood, foundation of work may be susceptible to scour or waterway of drain may get
choked with debris, trees etc.
C. Super passage
A drainage crossing in which drainage channel is carried in trough over the canal with FSL of canal
sufficiently below bottom of trough is called super passage. It is generally adopted whenbed level
of drainage is much above the FSL of canal.

This is just reverse of aqueduct, where canal water flows freely under gravity.
D. Canal syphon
This structure is generally adopted when canal FSL is at or above the drainage bed. Here, canal
passes under the drainage with bed level depressed below its normal bed level. Bottom of trough
carrying drainage is below FSL of canal such that canal water flows under syphonic action.

In this case, canal is not open to inspection.

E. Level crossing
This is a structure designed to pass canal across drainage at or about same level involving
intermixing of two waters with regulating structures on both sides. Level crossing is generally
adopted when,

16
Irrigation Engineering

i. a canal and drainage approach each other more or less at same level
ii. Both canal and drainage are of large capacity but drainage has high floods of short duration
iii. When syphoning of either of the two is costly

Discharge of stream may be utilized for canal supply during lean supply period.
F. Inlet and outlet
Inlet is an opening in canal bank, suitably protected. It allows drainage water to enter canal, thus
increasing the canal supply.

When drainage discharge is high, an outlet may be provided to escape out additional discharge at a
suitable site, little downstream along the canal.
Inlets for disposal of drainage water are more economical. Number of inlet may or may not be
equal to the number of outlets. This type of C/D structures are generally adopted when,
i. drainage discharge is small than canal discharge
ii. drainage and canal meet each other at relatively small level difference

5.4.2 Condition of application

a) If bed level of canal is much above HFL of drainage - Aqueduct
17
Irrigation Engineering

b) When bed level of drainage is much above the FSL of canal - Super passage
c) When HFL of drain is above bed level of canal - Syphon aqueduct
d) When FSL of canal is above bed level of drainage - Canal syphon
e) When a large canal crosses a large torrent at same level - Level crossing
f) When a small drainage crosses canal with small level difference - Inlet and outlet
Selection of particular type of C/D structure depends on,
i. Relative bed level and water level of canal and drainage
ii. Relative discharge of canal and drainage
iii. Availability of suitable foundation
iv. Economic consideration/ availability of funds
v. Availability of materials and labors
vi. Suitable canal alignment

5.4.3 Design consideration for C/D structures

a) Determination of maximum flood discharge
For small drainage, high flood discharge may be worked out by using empirical formula but for
large drainage, flood discharge is computed by hydrograph analysis or rational method.
b) Waterway requirement
By lacey equation, required waterway of drain is,

For wide drain, wetted perimeter is approximately taken equal to width of drain = waterway
required. For smaller drain, width of water way is taken 0.8 times the wetted perimeter.
Effective or clear waterway = waterway width – space occupied by piers (pier width = 1.5 m)
c) Size of barrel
For aqueduct,
Height of bay opening = CBL – DBL
For syphon aqueduct,
Area of drainage waterway = Q/ permissible velocity (2-3 m/s)
Height of opening = Area of drainage way/clear waterway width
d) Afflux or head loss through syphon barrel
Total head loss through syphon barrel is calculated as under,

18
Irrigation Engineering

The value of a and b depends on the surface material of barrel. For cement plaster, a = 0.00316
and b = 0.030.
U/S HFL = D/S HFS + h (afflux)
e) Fluming of canal
Fluming, i.e. contraction of canal waterway reduces the length of barrels and thus width of
aqueduct thus providing economy. However, transition has to be provided to provide smooth
change from one stage to another thus avoiding eddies. U/S wings should not be steeper than 2:1
and D/S wings should not be kept steeper than 3:1.
f) Design of canal transition
Mitra proposed a hyperbolic transition for design of canal transition. The canal width at any section
X-X, at a distance x from the flumed section is given by,

g) Hind’s method for design of transition where water depths vary

In the figure, contraction transition starts at section 1-1 and ends at section 2-2. The flumed
section continues from 2-2 to 3-3 and the expansion transition starts from 3-3 and finishes at 4-4.
Now, we will find out the elevation of bed level (BL), full supply level (FSL) and total energy line
(TEL) at each of these sections.

19
Irrigation Engineering

Let, v and y refer to velocities and depths at different sections.

Then, at section 4-4 where canal returns to its normal section,

Then,
FSL at section 3-3 = TEL at section 3-3 – v32/2g
Bed level at section 3-3 = FSL at section 3-3 – y3
Between 2-2 and 3-3, canal flows in trough. So only loss is friction loss calculated by using
manning’s formula.

20
Irrigation Engineering

Then, TEL at section 2-2 = TEL at section 3-3 + HL

FSL at section 2-2 = TEL at section 2-2 – v22/2g
Bed level at section 2-2 = FSL at section 2-2 – y2

FSL at section 1-1 = TEL at section 1-1 – v12/2g

Bed level at section 1-1 = FSL at section 1-1 – y1
5.5 Canal escapes
Any structure constructed to regulate and control discharges, depth, velocity etc in canal are called
canal regulation works. They ensure efficient working and safety of canal, by giving full control
upon them. Canal regulation works normally adopted in any canal system are,
i. Canal escapes
ii. Canal falls
iii. Head regulator
iv. Cross regulator
v. Canal outlet
Canal escapes
An escape is a side channel constructed to remove surplus water from irrigation channel into a
nearby natural drain. The supply in canal may be stopped or reduced from head regulator but the
supply already released may cause widespread damage (breach). Thus, escapes are safety valves of
canal and they should be provided at regular intervals. Minimum capacity of escape is kept half the
canal capacity at point of escape

21
Irrigation Engineering

Necessity:
Provision of canal escape is necessary due to following reasons:
i. Faulty regulation at canal head
ii. Excessive rainfall in upper reaches of canal
iii. Closure of canal outlets in d/s reach by cultivators due to low demands or heavy rainfall
meeting their water requirements
Functions:
i. Safety valve to protect canal against possible damage by flooding
ii. Emptying the canal reach below the escape for silt or weed removal or repair and
maintenance
iii. Removal of supply from canal, u/s of a breached site to avoid damage
iv. Periodic flushing off of silt
Types:
a) Weir type
In this type, crest of escape weir is kept at FSL of canal. Whenever water rises above FSL of canal,
surplus water flows out from the escape.
b) Regulator type
In regulator type of canal escape, crest level of escape is kept at or below the bed level of canal
and the escape is regulated by gate. This type gives better control over the canal water and can be
used to completely empty the canal when required. Periodic flushing out of silt is also possible
through this escape.
5.6 Types of canal drops and their design considerations
Canal drop/fall

Whenever natural slope of ground is steeper than designed bed slope canal, difference in bed
slope is adjusted by constructing a canal drop/fall. Fall/drop is a structure constructed across canal
to lower down water level. It destroys the surplus energy liberated from falling water, which may
otherwise scour bed and bank of canal downstream.

5.6.1 Types of canal fall

A. Ogee fall

22
Irrigation Engineering

Ogee fall has gradual convex and concave curves to provide smooth transition. Due to smooth
transition, kinetic energy of flow is not at all dissipated. Similarly, there is heavy drawdown on u/s
side resulting in lower depth, higher velocity and consequent bed erosion. To overcome these
drawbacks, a raised crest was added to restrict the drawdown later on.
B. Rapid fall

Rapid fall consisted of long rapids at slopes of 1:10 to 1:20 , i.e. gently sloping glacis. Destruction of
kinetic energy was achieved by formation of hydraulic jump. This fall worked quite satisfactorily
but was very expensive.
C. Stepped fall

This is modified form of rapid fall and consists of long glacis replaced by floor in steps.
D. Trapezoidal notch fall

23
Irrigation Engineering

Notch fall consisted of high crested walls across canal with a number of trapezoidal notch
openings. Neither drawdown nor heading up of water occurs as channel approaches the fall. It has
a smooth entrance and flat circular lip projecting downstream to provide smooth transition.
E. Vertical drop fall or Sarda type fall

Figure above shows a vertical drop. Energy dissipation is achieved by turbulent diffusion, as high
velocity jet enters the water cushion (deep pool of water).
Modified form, called Sarda fall, consists of a raised crest with vertical drop. There is no clear
hydraulic jump and energy dissipation is brought about by the turbulent diffusion as high velocity
jet enters the deep pool of water in the cistern downstream. It can be of two type, rectangular
crested or trapezoidal crested.
F. Straight glacis fall

In this type, a straight glacis, generally 2:1 slope, is provided after a raised [Link] jump is
made to occur on the glacis, causing sufficient energy dissipation. This gives very good
performance if not flumed and is suitable upto 60 cumecs discharge and for up to 1.5 m drop.
G. Inglis or baffle fall

24
Irrigation Engineering

This is straight glacis type fall provided with a baffle wall and a baffle platform in downstream.
Baffle wall of calculated height and calculated distance from toe are provided to ensure the
formation of jump on baffle platform. This type of fall is suitable for all discharges and for drops
more than 1.5 m.

5.6.2 Design of Sarda fall

a) Length of crest
Fluming of Canal is not permissible in Sarda fall. Length of crest is equal to bed width of canal. For
future expansion, crest length may be kept equal to bed width plus water depth.
b) Shape of crest
For Q< 14 cumecs, rectangular crest is provided.

For rectangular crest,

BT = top width of crest = 0.55 √d
Base width = (h+d)/2
Where,
h = head above the crest

25
Irrigation Engineering

d = height of crest above the d/s bed

Similarly, for Q> 14 cumecs, trapezoidal crest is adopted.

For trapezoidal crest,

BT = top width of crest = 0.55 √(H+d)
U/S side slope = 1:3
D/S side slope = 1:8

c) Crest level
To determine height of crest, discharge formula is used as under,

For rectangular crest,

For trapezoidal crest,

Height of crest above bed (u/s) =y–h

= y – H (neglecting velocity of approach, h = H)
Where, y = normal water depth in canal u/s
26
Irrigation Engineering

d) Cistern length and depth

The cistern length and depth is calculated as under.

e) U/S wing wall

For rectangular crest, approach wings may be splayed straight at an angle of 45°. For trapezoidal,
u/s wing wall are kept segmental with radius equal to 5H to 6H, at an angle of 60 ° at center.
f) Curtain wall

27
Irrigation Engineering

For U/S curtain wall,

Width = 1(1/2) brick wall
Depth = 1/3 of water depth u/s
For D/S curtain wall,
Width = 1(1/2) brick wall
Depth = 1/2 of water depth d/s or minimum of 0.5 m
g) U/S protection
Brick pitching of length equal to u/s water depth is provided for u/s protection and is kept at a
slope of 1:10, sloping towards crest. Drain pipes are provided to drain out the u/s bed during
closure of canal. Nominal floor thickness of 0.3 m provided on upstream side.
h) Impervious floor
Total length of impervious floor as given by Bligh = B x H’
Where,
B =Bligh’s coefficient
H’ = hydraulic head = d = crest level – d/s bed level
Minimum length of impervious floor on d/s from toe of crest wall = [2(water depth + 1.2m) + drop
(HL)]. Remaining length is provided under the crest and on upstream side. D/s bed is protected by
about 20 cm thickdry brick pitching.

5.7 Head and cross regulators

5.7.1 Distributary head regulator

A distributary head regulator is provided at the head of off taking canal and regulates the supply of
off taking canal. It acts as a necessary link between parent and distributary canal.

28
Irrigation Engineering

Functions:
i. To regulate and control supply to off taking canal
ii. To shut off supply, when not needed in off taking canal
iii. To control silt entry into off taking canal
iv. To serve as a meter for measuring discharge in off taking canal

5.7.2 Cross regulator

A cross regulator is constructed on main canal, at little d/s of off taking canal. It regulates the
supply of parent canal and helps to head up water level on u/s side. Thus, it enables the off taking
canal to draw the required supply even during period of low flow.
Functions:
i. To effectively control the entire canal system
ii. During period of low discharge in parent canal, it raises the water level on u/s side and thus
feeds the off taking canal in rotation
iii. Helps in closing the supply to d/s of parent channel for repair and maintenance purpose
iv. Helps in absorbing fluctuation in various sections of canal and thus prevents the possibility of
breaching in tail reaches
v. It is often combined with road bridge so as to carry road which may cross irrigation canal.

vi. It is usually combined with a fall (if required)

29
Irrigation Engineering

5.8 Types of canal outlets/modules and their design

Canal outlet/module is a small structure constructed at head of water course to connect it with
minor or distributary channel. The control and maintenance of entire network of canals upto the
modules falls under the jurisdiction of government. Beyond the canal module, the entire water
coursesis taken care by the cultivators themselves. Thus, it acts as a connecting link between
government and the cultivators.
An outlet should be such that it fits well to the decided principle of water distribution. Hence, it
should be simple, cheap, efficient and easy to handle.
Requirements of a good outlet/module:
i. Should be simple so that local masons and technicians can maintain it.
ii. Should work efficiently even with a small working head.
iii. Should be cheap, since it is required in large numbers.
iv. Should be sufficiently strong with no moving parts, thus avoiding periodic maintenance.
v. Any interference by cultivators should be made difficult and easily detectable.
vi. Should draw its fair share of silt carried by parent canal.
Types of canal outlet/module:
a) Non modular outlets
In non modular outlet, discharge depends on the difference in water level/head between
distributary and water courses. It varies widely with change in water level of distributary or that of
water course. Discharge increases with either rise in water level in distributary or lowering of water
level in water course. Non modular outlet is suitable for low head conditions.
Examples:- Submerged pipe outlet

30
Irrigation Engineering

Discharge through submerged outlet is given by,

b) Semi modules or flexible modules

In this type, discharge is independent of water level of water course and it depends only on the
water level of the distributary as long as minimum working head is available. Discharge through
such outlet increases with increase in water level surface of distributary and vice versa. It is
suitable where sufficient level difference between distributary and water course is available. This
type is suitable for achieving equitable distribution of water at all outlets of a distributary.
Example: open flume outlet, pipe outlet, discharging freely into atmosphere

Semi modules or flexible modules

Discharge through pipe outlet is given by,

c) Rigid module or modular outlet

In this type. discharge is constant and fixed within limits. Discharge remains unaffected with
fluctuations in water levels of either distributary or water course or both. These outlets may have

31
Irrigation Engineering

moving parts or may be without moving parts. The one without moving parts are called rigid
modules.
Rigid module supplies fixed discharge and, therefore, enables the farmer to plan his irrigation
accordingly. It cannot adjust its discharge according to the level in the distributary. It is especially
useful when the branch has to carry excess supplies to meet the demands of the distributaries. The
discharge through the modular outlet would not get affected, and the excess supplies would reach
up to the desired distributaries.
Example:- Gibb’s module

32
Irrigation Engineering

Chapter 7: River control and Drainage

7.1Effects of water logging and their control
Water logging is saturation of soil with water. It occurs when water table rises into the root zone of
plants making the root zone ill aerated and suspending bacterial activity there. Agricultural land is
said to be waterlogged when it is nearly saturated with water, most of the time, restricting its air
circulation. The productivity or fertility of land gets affected due to water logging.

7.1.1 Causes of water logging

i. Over irrigation of land without giving any rest to it, which results in heavy percolation and
subsequent rise of WT.
ii. Cultivation of wet crop in every season and applying more water than required.
iii. Seepage of water from adjoining high land.
iv. Seepage of water through bed and banks of adjoining unlined canals, reservoirs etc.
v. Impervious obstruction in the path of laterally moving subsoil water, resulting in rise in WT,
u/s of obstruction..
vi. Water surface drainage keeping the water stagnant over the area for considerable time.
vii. Excessive rainfall creates temporary water logging. In absence of adequate drainage, it may
lead to continued water logging..
viii. Frequent submergence due to floods in adjacent rivers.
ix. Flat terrains with depression.
x. Soil having poor drainage qualities such as clay, black cotton soil are prone to water logging.

7.1.2 Effects of water logging

i. Crop yield gets reduced.
ii. Normal cultivation operations such as tilling, ploughing etc become difficult.
iii. Weeds, grass etc grow in water logged area, thus affecting the growth of main crops.
iv. Capillary water coming up to surface brings up the harmful salt, which leads to formation of
alkaline condition.
v. Water logged condition causes diseases to crops, decay of roots etc.
vi. Reduced growth and yellowing or chlorosis of older leaves.
vii. Fall in soil temperature restricts root development, depresses biotic activity, hampering
seed germination and seedling growth.
viii. Presence of excess water cuts off normal air circulation in root zone of plants.
ix. Water logging promotes malaria, thereby creating unhealthy environment for human
population, animals and plants in area.

7.1.3 Preventive measures of water logging

i. By reducing intensity of irrigation.
1
Irrigation Engineering

ii. By adopting crop rotation, i.e. a wet crops should be followed by a dry crop.
iii. Farmers should be educated and trained in using just the required amount of water to
crops, which gives the optimum yield.
iv. Providing intercepting drains to collect water seeping through the sides of canal.
v. By encouraging consumptive use of surface and groundwater by digging wells, shallow tube
wells etc.
vi. Control traffic to reduce soil compaction.
vii. By lining canals and water courses.
viii. Lift irrigation should be introduced in place of canal irrigation, where there is possibility of
water logging.
ix. Sprinkler and drip irrigation methods may be introduced to reduce percolation losses.
x. Storm water and excess water should be effectively drained off by improving natural
drainage of the area.
xi. Deep rooted trees like eucalyptus is helpful in lowering the water table (roots extends upto
3 m and transpire water at high rate, thus working as a biological pump).
7.2 Drainage
Drainage is natural or artificial removal of a surface water or sub-surface water from an area. It is
the process of taking out excess water from the irrigated land so that water logging effect is
minimized in field. It is necessary in plain terrain having ground water table at shallow depth.
Drainage can be of two types.
a) Surface drainage
The removal of excess water from the surface of the land is called surface drainage. It is normally
accomplished by providing shallow ditches, also called open drains. The shallow ditches then
discharge the collected water into larger and deeper collector drains or nearby natural drainage.

To facilitate the flow of excess water toward the drains, the field is given an artificial slope by
means of land grading. If ground has good slope naturally with sufficient number of well defined
natural drains, no drainage is required for little rainfall, like in hills. However, drains are necessary
for very mild slope or flat terrain for heavy rainfall with impervious soil.

2
Irrigation Engineering

b) Sub surface drainage

Subsurface drainage is the removal of water from the root zone of plant below the land surface. It
facilitates easy movement of farm machines.

Sub-surface drainage is accomplished by either deep open drains or buried pipe drains.
a) Deep open drains

Deep trenches are dug at suitable interval. The excess water from the root zone flows laterally into
the open drains. However, these drains make the use of machinery difficult.
b) Buried pipe drains

3
Irrigation Engineering

Pipe drains are buried pipes with openings through which soil water can enter. Pipes convey water
to a nearby collector drain.
Suitable arrangements should be made before laying perforated pipes as shown in figure below.

A trench of desired depth is dug and a suitably sized perforated drain pipe is placed. The trench is
then filled with permeable materials such as sand, gravel etc. Water seeping from adjoining area
reaches the gravel pocket, which then enters the perforated pipes.
7.3 Objectives of river training
Various measures adopted on a river to direct and guide the flow, to train and regulate river bed,
and to control, delay or minimize the stream instability problems are called river training works.
Objective of river training works are as under.
i. To achieve safe passage of high discharge floods through rivers.
ii. To achieve sufficient depth of flow required for navigation.
iii. To achieve flow through defined width so as to ensure flow through weir, barrage, bridges
etc.
iv. To make river course stable and reduce bank erosion.

4
Irrigation Engineering

v. To fix direction of flow through certain defined reach.

vi. To ensure effective disposal of sediment load.
vii. To prevent river from changing its course and avoid outflanking of structures such like
bridges, weirs, aqueducts etc.
viii. To protect additional area from submergence in the vicinity of weir or barrage.
7.4 Types of river training works and their necessities
Different types of river training works generally adopted are as under.
a) Marginal bunds

These are earthen embankments provided on the u/s side of work and extend from the
abutments of guide bank. Marginal bunds retain flood water and prevent it from spreading into
nearby land. Thus, they protects additional area from submergence due to afflux created by
construction of bridge/structures.
b) Guide banks/bells bund
It is often costly to provide bridges or other structures across the entire natural spread of alluvial
rivers in flood plains. Structures constructed to narrow down and guide the river course to flow
through the diversion structure are called guide banks. They are constructed on either side or both
u/s and d/s of the structure. They ensure a smooth and nearly axial flow towards the structure.
c) Spurs or groynes
Also known as groynes, dikes or transverse dikes, these are structures constructed transverse to
the river flow, extending from the bank into the river upto certain limits. They protect the banks by
deflecting current away from banks.
5
Irrigation Engineering

Groynes are more effective when constructed in series as they create a pool of nearly still water
between them and gradually accumulates silt forming a permanent bank line in course of time.
They can be constructed of different shape as under.

d) Revetments

Artificial surfacing of river banks and a part of river bed in order to make banks resistant to erosion
is called revetment. Most common type used in Nepal is gabion-stone basket. Modern revetments
have concrete or shaped blocks of rip rap stones laid on top of a layer of finer material. Riprap has
the advantage of good permeability plus looks more natural

6
Irrigation Engineering

e) Artificial cut offs

When a meander goes on increasing, it may endanger some valuable land or property. In that case,
river course may be straightened by inducing an artificial cut off. It shortens the path of channel
and diverts the main channel away from eroding bank. They are likely to cause disturbance of
regime upstream and downstream till readjustment is made.
f) Embankment

In plains, when discharge in river increases, the water spreads out in the adjoining flood plain on
either side. When there is valuable land in those flood plains, it has to be protected from
submergence during high flood in river. For that purpose, earthen embankments are constructed
in the flood plains, running parallel to the river bank along its length. They confine the river flood
water within the cross section available between the embankments. Thus, flood water is not
allowed to spill over to the flood plains, as normally would had been.
7.5 Design of guide bank
a) Length of clear waterway
By lacey, length of clear waterway is given by,
P = 4.75√Q
Where, Q is discharge through the confinement in cumecs

7
Irrigation Engineering

Overall length of waterway,

L = 1.2P
(The length is increased by 20% for piers etc)
b) Length of guide banks
U/S length of guide bank = 1.25L to 1.5L
= 1.25 L ,for Q < 20000 cumecs
= 1.5L , for Q >20000 cumecs
D/S length of guide bank = 0.25L
c) Radius and sweep angle of curved head
Radius of curved head on U/S = 0.45L
Radius of curved head on D/S =0.225L
Angle of sweep is taken 120° to 145° on U/S and 45° to 60° on D/S
d) Design of cross section
Top width of guide bank = 5m (should not be less than 4 m)
Side slopes of guide bank = 1.5H:1V to 2.5H:1V (generally side slope of 2:1 is taken)
Top level of guide bank = HFL + freeboard
(Freeboard of 1.2 to 1.5 m is usually taken)
Bottom level of guide bank = Bed level of river
Thickness of stone pitching is taken,

8
Irrigation Engineering

e) Launching apron
If no protection is provided after stone pitching of slope, scour will occur at the toe of guide bank
with consequent undermining and ultimately collapse of pitching. So, pitching is extended beyond
the toe on the river bed in the form of packed stones. This stone dumping is called launching
apron.
As soon as scour occurs, this launching apron falls down into the scoured portion, thus preventing
further erosion of bank.

Thickness of launching apron, T = 1.9t

Length of launching apron, =1.5D
Where,
Scour depth, D = xR – y (water depth above bed)
Where,
Y = water depth in river above bed

f = 1.76√dmm
dmm is average diameter of sediments in mm
For straight reach, x = 1.25
Scour depth, D =1.25R- y
For curvilinear reach, x = 1.5
Scour depth, D = 1.5R- y
9