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AHMEDABAD INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL

IGCSE-I

CHAPTER-2 NOTES

Data sent on long distances is broken into data packets/datagrams(64 KiB).

Structure of a data packet.

-it has a header

• ... that contains the destination address
• ... that contains the packet number
• ... that contains the originator’s address
• ... Size of the packet in bytes
- it has a payload
•-- actual data in packets
-it has a trailer
•-- Method to identify the end of packet
•--Some form of error checking ---CRC(Cyclic Redundancy check- is an
error-detecting code commonly used in digital networks and storage
devices to detect accidental changes to digital data)

Packet Switching - is a method of data transmission in which a message is broken

up into a number of packets. Each packet can be sent independently from
sender(start point) to receiver (end point ) through several routes(each route/node
contains a Router- which decides which route (based on shortest route/less busy
route) the packet needs to take to reach destination-(based on receiver’s IP
address ).At destination again reassembled in correct order as packets can reach
destination in a different order to that in which they sent.
Benefits- not a single communication line,possibility to overcome
failed/busy/faulty lines. Easy to expand package usage,high data transmission rate
is possible.
Drawbacks-packets can be lost and need to be resent, it is more prone to errors
with real time streaming,delay reaching destination whilst packets are being
reordered.
Hopping- packets can be lost because they keep bouncing around from
router to router and never actually reach their destination. In that case the
network grinds to a halt, as a number of lost packets mount up,clogging the
system. To overcome this hopping method is used- a hop number added to the
header of each packet, and this number reduced by 1 every time it leaves a router.
-Each packet has a maximum hop number to start with.
-Once a hop number reaches 0 and the packet hasn’t reached its destination,
-then the packet is deleted when it reaches the next router.
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-The missing packets will then be flagged/(informed) by the receiving computer
and a request to resend these packets will be made.
Data Transmission-factors to be considered-

1. Transmission modes
a. Simplex-Data is sent in one direction e.g-comp to printer
b. Half-duplex - Data is sent in both directions--but only one direction
at a time .e.g-walkie talkie
c. Duplex data transmission
● can be either serial or parallel
● is when data is transmitted both ways at the same time
● automatically detects any errors in data
● e.g-broadband internet connection

2. Method of transmission
a. Serial transmission
• It uses a single wire
- therefore, it is cheaper to manufacture / buy / install
-therefore, less likely to have interference // no crosstalk
- therefore, can be used over longer distances
• Data is sent a bit at a time
- therefore, less chance of data being skewed // data is received
in order
- slower transmission rate
• Transmission can be synchronized
- can reduce rate of errors
[e.g- USB]
b. Parallel transmission
● Multiple bits of data are sent all at once/ uses several
channels(one bit) all at the same time -- 7 bits transfer
-large amount of data transmission is done quickly
-can be simplex,half duplex, duplex.
- can be used over short distances.
- faster transmission rate.
● Transmission can be unsynchronized(out of order)
[e.g- internal circuits/components in a computer]

Simplex-Serial--Data is sent down a single wire in a single direction only.

Parallel-Duplex-Data is sent down multiple wires in both directions, at the same time.
Serial-Half Duplex-Data is sent down a single wire in both directions, but never at the
same time.
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Case Study- To transmit the data for the new videos to the web server by-

Parallel half-duplex data transmission method -

• parallel would allow fastest transmission
... of the large amount of data
• data can be uploaded and downloaded …
... but this does not have to be at the same time
• data is not required to travel a long distance

USB(Universal Serial bus) →

-It is a serial data transmission method between devices & computers,
-It allows half duplex and full duplex mode
- USB cable consists of 4 wire shielded cable,with 2 wires for power &
2 for data transmission.

Benefits of using a USB port to connect the mobile device to the computer.
− It is a universal standard//common interface
− It can’t be inserted the wrong way around
− Supports different transmission speeds
− Automatically detects if correct driver installed
− It will charge the mobile device at the same time
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Methods of error detection:-

While transmission, risk of data gets corrupted,lost/gained due to-

1. Interference (cables- electrical interference )

2. Packet switching
3. Skewing of data(parallel transmission- unsynchronized data)

Ways data can be checked for errors-

● Parity check-is a method used to check if data has been changed/corrupted
− A parity bit is added (to the parity byte)
− Counts / checks number of 1’s
− Can be even or odd
− If parity is incorrect, error is detected
● Checksum-detects the errors by -
Sending device creates value from calculation on data // By example
− Value is transmitted with the data
− Receiving device performs same calculation
− Values are compared after transmission
- If values do not match
- an error is detected
● Echo check-When data is sent to another device, this data is sent back again
to the sender. The sender’s computer compares the two sets of data to check
if any errors occurred during the transmission [Link] here the problem
is to find out whether the error occurs while sending or receiving the data.
● Check digit-
•It Is a Validation method
• Used to check data entry
• Digit is calculated from data // by example
• Digit is appended / added to data
• Digit is recalculated when data has been input
• Digits are compared
• If digits are different, error is detected // If digits match, no error is detected
e.g-
Calculation of the Check digit (13th digit) of the textbook is→
978139831828=
Odd digits→9+8+3+8+1+2= 31
even→7+1+9+3+8+8= 36*3=108
108+31=139/10=remainder=9
10-9=1
9781398318281=
Odd digits→9+8+3+8+1+2+1= 32
even→7+1+9+3+8+8= 36*3=108
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108+32=140/10=remainder=0

● Modulo-11-can be possible on varying lengths of a number.

978139831828=as its 12 digit so weight starts from
9*13+7*12+8*11+1*10+3*9+9*8+8*7+3*6+1*5+8*4+2*3+8*2
117+84+88+10+27+72+56+18+5+32+6+16=531/11=remainder(3)
11-3=8

978139831828 8
9*13+7*12+8*11+1*10+3*9+9*8+8*7+3*6+1*5+8*4+2*3+8*2+8*1
117+84+88+10+27+72+56+18+5+32+6+16+8=539/11=remainder(0)
The number is correct.

Similarities between the check digit and checksum methods.

− They both calculate a value from the data
− They both append the calculated value to the data
− They both recalculate the value
− They both report an error if they don’t match

Automatic Repeat Requests-(ARQ’s)- used by mobile phone networks to

guarantee data integrity.
− Uses acknowledgement / request and time-out
− Error control protocol
− Check performed on receiving data // error is detected by e.g. parity check, check sum
− If error detected, request is sent to resend data // negative acknowledgement is used
− Resend request is repeated till data is sent correctly / requests timeout / limit is reached
− Send acknowledgement that data is received // positive acknowledgement is used
− If acknowledgement not received in set time data is resent

Case Study-- The library’s archive system uses an error detection and correction
system that combines a parity check with an automatic repeat request (ARQ).
Describe how this system uses the parity check and ARQ.

•The system could use odd or even parity

• A parity bit is added
• The data is checked to see if it has incorrect/correct parity // by example
• If parity is correct no error is found
• An acknowledgement is sent that data is received correctly
• The next packet of data is transmitted
• If incorrect parity is found an error has occurred
• A signal is sent back to request the data is resent
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Symmetric/ Asymmetric Encryption-

Data is encrypted by-

- An encryption algorithm is used to scramble data
− The original data is called the plain text
− A key is used to encrypt the data
− The key is applied to the plain text
− Plain text is encrypted into cypher text
-Same key is used to encrypt and decrypt the text
- e.g- used for credit card/bank details, medical history or legal documents).

Note -If the data is encrypted with an 8-bit key, to make it more secure just Increase
the length of the key // make key 12-bit,

Plaintext and ciphertext

The original data being sent is known as plaintext. Once it has gone through an
encryption algorithm, it produces ciphertext:

2.3.2 Symmetric and asymmetric encryption

Symmetric encryption

Symmetric encryption uses an encryption key; the same key is used to encrypt and
decrypt the encoded message. A key is given and the message is written with repeated
key numbers and moves characters that many places ahead and at decryption end move
characters that many places back.
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Asymmetric encryption

Asymmetric encryption makes use of two keys called the public key and the private key.

Receiver- generate public key (made available to everybody) & private key (only known
to the computer user) using an algorithm. Then sends the public key to the sender ,
then the sender encrypts the data using this public key and sends the encrypted
document (ciphertext) back to the receiver, where the receiver uses its matching private
key to decipher the message.

However, if a two-way communication is required between all five workers, then they all
need to generate their own matching public and private keys. Once this is done, all users
then need to swap public keys so that they can send encrypted documents/files/messages
between each other. Each worker will then use their own private key to decrypt
information being sent to them.

Methods that can be used to secure the data in the office.

- Firewall
− Password
− Proxy server
− Physical methods (by example e.g. CCTV, Locks)