Stellar Atmosphere
Theory of Radiative Transfer
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Specific Intensity or Spectral Brightness (𝑰𝝀 )
⇒ amount of radiation emitted (or incident) per unit area, per unit time, per unit solid
angle and per unit wavelength
𝐼𝜆
𝑑Ω
𝜃 𝑛ො
Amount of radiation passing through an elementary area dA in time dt from solid
angle 𝑑Ω in the wavelength range 𝜆 to 𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆
𝐸𝜆 𝑑𝜆 ∝ 𝑑𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝑑Ω 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝜆
= 𝐼𝜆 𝑑𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝑑Ω 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝜆
𝐸𝜆 𝑑𝜆 =𝐼𝜆 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝐴 𝑑Ω 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝜆
Specific Intensity or Spectral Brightness (𝑰𝝀 )
𝐸𝜆 𝑑𝜆 =𝐼𝜆 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝐴 𝑑Ω 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝜆
Specific intensity,
𝐸𝜆 𝑑𝜆
𝐼𝜆 𝜃, 𝜙 = 𝑊𝑚−2 𝑠𝑟 −1
cos 𝜃𝑑𝐴 𝑑Ω 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝜆
𝑑𝑆 = (𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜙)(𝑟𝑑𝜃)
= 𝑟 2 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
𝑑𝑆
𝑑Ω = 2 = sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙
𝑟
Specific Intensity or Spectral Brightness (𝑰𝝀 )
Radiant flux associated with wavelength 𝜆
𝐹𝜆 = ∫ 𝐼𝜆 cos 𝜃 𝑑Ω
In terms of frequency,
𝐹𝜈 = ∫ 𝐼𝜈 cos 𝜃 𝑑Ω
Total radiant flux
𝐹 = ∫ 𝐹𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = ∫ 𝐹𝜈 𝑑𝜈
Specific Intensity or Spectral Brightness (𝑰𝝀 )
Exercise. Show that the specific intensity along a ray path is independent of position
𝐼𝜈1 = 𝐼𝜈2
Energy Density
Amount of energy contained within the radiation field
𝐸𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = 𝐼𝜆 cos 𝜃 𝑑𝐴 𝑑Ω 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝜆
Radiation traverses a distance 𝑐𝑑𝑡 in time 𝑑𝑡
radiation
𝑑𝐴 cos 𝜃 𝑐𝑑𝑡
Energy density,
𝐸𝜆 𝑑𝜆 𝐸𝜆 𝑑𝜆
=
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝐴 cos 𝜃 (𝑐𝑑𝑡)
1
= 𝐼𝜆 𝑑Ω 𝑑𝜆
𝑐
Energy Density
Total energy density of the radiation
1
𝑢𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = ∫ 𝐼𝜆 𝑑Ω 𝑑𝜆
𝑐 𝑑Ω = sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙
1 2𝜋 𝜋
= න න 𝐼𝜆 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 𝑑𝜆
𝑐 𝜙=0 𝜃=0
2𝜋 𝜋
1
= 𝐼𝜆 𝑑𝜆 න 𝑑𝜙 න sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑐 𝜙=0 𝜃=0
1
= 𝐼𝜆 𝑑𝜆 2𝜋 (2)
𝑐
4𝜋
= 𝐼 𝑑𝜆
𝑐 𝜆
For isotropic radiation field,
4𝜋
𝑢𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = 𝐼 𝑑𝜆
𝑐 𝜆
Energy Density
For the blackbody radiation
4𝜋
𝑢𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = 𝐵 𝑑𝜆 2ℎ𝑐 2 1
𝑐 𝜆 𝐵𝜆 = 5 ℎ𝑐/𝜆𝑘𝑇
𝜆 𝑒 −1
8𝜋ℎ𝑐 1
= 𝑑𝜆
𝜆5 𝑒 ℎ𝑐/𝜆𝑘𝑇 −1
𝑐
𝜆=
𝜈
In terms of frequency,
𝑐
𝑑𝜆 = − 𝑑𝜈
𝜈2
8𝜋ℎ𝜈 3 1
𝑢𝜈 𝑑𝜈 = 𝑑𝜈
𝑐 3 𝑒 ℎ𝜈/𝑘𝑇 − 1
Energy Density
Total energy density,
∞
𝑢 = න 𝑢𝜈 𝑑𝜈
0 Let,
ℎ𝜈
∞ 8𝜋ℎ𝜈 3 1 =𝑥
= ∫0 𝑐 3 𝑒 ℎ𝜈/𝑘𝑇 −1 𝑑𝜈 𝑘𝑇
Or,
3 𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇
∞ 8𝜋ℎ 𝑘𝑇 1 𝜈= 𝑥
= ∫0 𝑐 3 ℎ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 × 𝑥 ℎ
ℎ 𝑒 −1
Then,
𝑘𝑇
8𝜋ℎ 𝑘𝑇 4 ∞ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝜈 = 𝑑𝑥
= ∫0 𝑒 𝑥−1 𝑑𝑥 ℎ
𝑐3 ℎ
8𝜋5 𝑘 4
= 𝑇4
15𝑐 3 ℎ3 ∞
𝑥3 𝜋4
න 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
= 𝑎𝑇 4 0 𝑒 − 1 15
Where,
(using complex variables)
8𝜋5 𝑘 4
𝑎= is radiation constant
15𝑐 3 ℎ3
= 7.57 × 10−16 𝐽𝑚−3 𝐾 −4
Radiation Pressure
➢ Radiation can exert pressure
A photon (massless) possess an energy 𝐸 and hence momentum
𝐸 (from Einstein’s energy equation)
𝑝=
𝑐
Radiation Pressure
Change in the z-component of the momentum of photons with wavelength between 𝜆
and 𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆
𝑑𝑝𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = 𝑝𝜆 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙, 𝑧 − 𝑝𝜆 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙, 𝑧 𝑑𝜆
𝐸𝜆 cos 𝜃 𝐸𝜆 cos 𝜃
= 𝑐
− − 𝑐
𝑑𝜆
2𝐸𝜆 cos 𝜃
= 𝑑𝜆
𝑐
2
= 𝑐 𝐼𝜆 𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝐴 cos 2 𝜃 𝑑Ω
Pressure,
𝑑𝑝𝜆 /𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑,𝜆 𝑑𝜆 =
𝑑𝐴
2
= 𝐼𝜆 𝑑𝜆 cos2 𝜃 𝑑Ω
𝑐
Radiation Pressure
Total radiation pressure of photons with wavelength between 𝜆 and 𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆
2
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑,𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = න 𝐼𝜆 𝑑𝜆 cos 2 𝜃 𝑑Ω
𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒
2 2𝜋 𝜋/2
= 𝑐 ∫𝜙=0 ∫𝜃=0 𝐼𝜆 𝑑𝜆 cos 2 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙
For isotropic radiation
𝑑Ω = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙
2𝜋 𝜋/2
2
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑,𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = 𝐼𝜆 න 𝑑𝜙 න cos 2 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝜋/2
𝑐 1
0 0 න cos2 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 =
0 3
4𝜋
= 𝐼 𝑑𝜆
3𝑐 𝜆 2𝜋
න 𝑑𝜙 = 4𝜋
0
Total radiation pressure,
∞
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = න 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑,𝜆 𝑑𝜆
0
Radiation Pressure
For a blackbody radiation,
4𝜋 ∞
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = න 𝐵 𝑇 𝑑𝜆
3𝑐 0 𝜆
(see previous section)
1 4
= 𝑎𝑇
3
∵ 𝑢 = 𝑎𝑇 4
1
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝑢
3
The blackbody radiation pressure is one third of the energy density.
Absorption of Radiation
Absorption coefficient.
➢ measure of the rate of decrease in the intensity of electromagnetic radiation as it
passes through a given substance
𝐼𝜆 𝜌 r 𝐼𝜆 + 𝑑𝐼𝜆
𝑑𝑠
Change in the intensity due to absorption and scattering
𝑑𝐼𝜆 ∝ 𝜌𝐼𝜆 𝑑𝑠
⇒ 𝑑𝐼𝜆 = −𝜅𝜆 𝜌𝐼𝜆 𝑑𝑠
where,
𝜅𝜆 - absorption coefficient (𝑚2 𝑘𝑔−1) or opacity
−𝑣𝑒 sign ⇒ due to decrease in the intensity with distance
Absorption of Radiation
Example. Consider a beam of light traveling through a gas with initial intensity 𝐼𝜆,0 at s = 0.
Then find the final intensity 𝐼𝜆,𝑓 after the light has travelled a distance 𝑠
𝐼𝜆,0 𝜅𝜆 r 𝐼𝜆,𝑓
𝑠=0 𝑠
Change in intensity,
𝑑𝐼𝜆 = −𝜅𝜆 𝜌 𝐼𝜆 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝐼𝜆
⇒ = −𝜅𝜆 𝜌 𝑑𝑠
𝐼𝜆
Integrating both sides,
𝐼𝜆,𝑓 𝑠
𝑑𝐼𝜆
න = − න 𝜅𝜆 𝜌𝑑𝑠
𝐼𝜆,0 𝐼𝜆 0
𝐼𝜆,𝑓 𝑠
ln 𝐼𝜆 ቚ = − න 𝜅𝜆 𝜌𝑑𝑠
𝐼𝜆,0 0
Absorption of Radiation
𝑠
− ∫0 𝜅𝜆 𝜌𝑑𝑠
𝐼𝜆 = 𝐼𝜆,0 𝑒 𝑓- dropped
For a gas with uniform opacity and density,
𝜅𝜆 𝜌 = independent of 𝑠
= constant
𝑠
න 𝜅𝜆 𝜌𝑑𝑠 = 𝜅𝜆 𝜌𝑠
0
⇒ 𝐼𝜆 = 𝐼𝜆,0 𝑒 −𝜅𝜆𝜌𝑠
where,
1 1
dimension of 𝜅𝜆 𝜌 = 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Let,
1
ℓ=𝜅 = constant = characteristic length
𝜆𝜌
Absorption of Radiation
Characteristic length
⇒ measure of change in the intensity due to absorption of radiation
𝑠
−
⇒ 𝐼𝜆 = 𝐼𝜆,0 𝑒 ℓ
Absorption of Radiation
Example. In the solar photosphere, where the density is approximately 𝜌 = 2.1 ×
10−4 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−3 , the opacity (at a wavelength of 500 nm) is 𝜅500 = 0.03 𝑚2 𝑘𝑔−1, find
the characteristic length.
Solution.
1
ℓ=
𝜅500 𝜌
1
=
0.03 𝑚2 𝑘𝑔−1 × 2.1×10−4 𝑘𝑔 𝑚−3
= 160 km