Stellar Atmosphere
Theory of Radiative Transfer
Solution of Radiative Transfer Equation
1 𝑑𝐼𝜆
− = 𝐼𝜆 − 𝑆𝜆
𝜅𝜆 𝜌 𝑑𝑠
Let, 𝑑𝜏𝜆 = −𝜅𝜆 𝜌𝑑𝑠 then,
𝑑𝐼𝜆
− 𝐼𝜆 = 𝑆𝜆
𝑑𝜏𝜆
Multiplying both sides by 𝑒 −𝜏𝜆 ,
𝑑𝐼𝜆 −𝜏
𝑒 𝜆 − 𝐼𝜆 𝑒 −𝜏𝜆 = −𝑆𝜆 𝑒 −𝜏𝜆
𝑑𝜏𝜆
𝑑
𝐼𝜆 𝑒 −𝜏𝜆 = −𝑆𝜆 𝑒 −𝜏𝜆
𝑑𝜏𝜆
Integrating from 0 to 𝜏𝜆
𝜏𝜆 𝜏𝜆
′
𝐼𝜆 𝑒 −𝜏𝜆 ቚ = − න 𝑆𝜆 𝑒 −𝜏𝜆 𝑑𝜏𝜆′
0 0
2
Solution of Radiative Transfer Equation
𝜏𝜆 𝜏𝜆
′
𝐼𝜆 𝑒 −𝜏𝜆 ቚ = − න 𝑆𝜆 𝑒 −𝜏𝜆 𝑑𝜏𝜆′
0 0
𝜏𝜆
′
𝐼𝜆 𝑒 −𝜏𝜆 − 𝐼𝜆,0 = − න 𝑆𝜆 𝑒 −𝜏𝜆 𝑑𝜏𝜆′
0
𝜏𝜆
′
𝐼𝜆 (𝑠) = 𝐼𝜆,0 𝑒 𝜏𝜆 − න 𝑆𝜆 𝑒 𝜏𝜆 −𝜏𝜆 𝑑𝜏𝜆′
0
⇓
General solution of the RT equation
3
Solution of Radiative Transfer Equation
𝜏𝜆
′
𝐼𝜆 (𝑠) = 𝐼𝜆,0 𝑒 𝜏𝜆 −න 𝑆𝜆 𝑒 𝜏𝜆 −𝜏𝜆 𝑑𝜏𝜆′
0
Assuming the matter through which the radiation is passing has constant properties, then
𝜏𝜆
′
𝐼𝜆 (𝑠) = 𝐼𝜆,0 𝑒 𝜏𝜆 − 𝑆𝜆 𝑒 𝜏𝜆 න 𝑒 −𝜏𝜆 𝑑𝜏𝜆′
0
′ 𝜏𝜆
𝐼𝜆 (𝑠) = 𝐼𝜆,0 𝑒 𝜏𝜆 − 𝑆𝜆 𝑒 𝜏𝜆 𝑒 −𝜏𝜆
0
𝐼𝜆 𝜏𝜆 = 𝐼𝜆,0 𝑒 𝜏𝜆 + 𝑆𝜆 (1 − 𝑒 𝜏𝜆 )
In terms of distance, 𝜏𝜆 = −𝜅𝜆 𝜌𝑠
𝐼𝜆 𝑠 = 𝐼𝜆,0 𝑒 −𝜅𝜆𝜌𝑠 + 𝑆𝜆 (1 − 𝑒 −𝜅𝜆𝜌𝑠 )
4
Solution of Radiative Transfer Equation
𝐼𝜆 𝜏𝜆 = 𝐼𝜆,0 𝑒 𝜏𝜆 + 𝑆𝜆 (1 − 𝑒 𝜏𝜆 )
In the absence of source of radiation
𝐼𝜆 𝜏𝜆 = 𝑆𝜆 (1 − 𝑒 𝜏𝜆 )
In the absence of medium, 𝑆𝜆 = 0
𝐼𝜆 = 𝐼𝜆,0 𝑒 𝜏𝜆
Putting, 𝜏𝜆 = −𝜅𝜆 𝜌𝑠, we get
𝐼𝜆 𝑠 = 𝐼𝜆,0 𝑒 −𝜅𝜆𝜌𝑠 + 𝑆𝜆 (1 − 𝑒 −𝜅𝜆𝜌𝑠 )
If 𝑆𝜆 = 2I𝜆,0
𝐼𝜆 𝑠 = 𝐼𝜆,0 𝑒 −𝜅𝜆 𝜌𝑠 + 2I𝜆,0 (1 − 𝑒 −𝜅𝜆 𝜌𝑠 )
= 2𝐼𝜆,0 − 𝐼𝜆,0 𝑒 −𝜅𝜆𝜌𝑠 5
Solution of Radiative Transfer Equation
𝐼𝜆 𝑠 = 2𝐼𝜆,0 − 𝐼𝜆,0 𝑒 −𝜅𝜆 𝜌𝑠
6
Plane Parallel Atmosphere
Assumption. The radius of curvature of a star is assumed to be much larger than the
thickness of its atmosphere.
If 𝑑𝑠 ≪ 𝑅
𝑅 Flat surface
𝑑𝑠
7
Plane Parallel Atmosphere
Vertical optical depth,
0
𝜏𝜆,𝑣(𝑧) ≡ න 𝜅𝜆 𝜌𝑑𝑧
−𝑧 𝜏𝜆,𝑣 = 0 Top of the atmosphere
(does not depend on the direction of travel of ray)
Optical depth along the ray,
𝜏𝜆,𝑣
𝜏𝜆 = = 𝜏𝜆,𝑣 sec 𝜃
cos 𝜃
Radiative transfer equation for the plane parallel atmosphere,
𝑑𝐼𝜆
= 𝐼𝜆 − 𝑆𝜆
𝑑𝐼𝜆 𝑑𝜏𝜆
cos 𝜃 = 𝐼𝜆 − 𝑆𝜆
𝑑𝜏𝜆,𝑣
8
Plane Parallel Atmosphere
If opacity is independent of wavelength (gray atmosphere assumption), then
𝜏𝜆,𝑣 → 𝜏𝑣 𝑑𝐼𝜆
cos 𝜃 = 𝐼𝜆 − 𝑆𝜆
𝑑𝜏𝜆,𝑣
For, intensity and source function to be independent of 𝜆, integrating both sides
𝑑 ∞ ∞ ∞
cos 𝜃 න 𝐼 𝑑𝜆 = න 𝐼𝜆 𝑑𝜆 − න 𝑆𝜆 𝑑𝜆
𝑑𝜏𝑣 0 𝜆 0 0
∞ ∞
Let, 𝐼 = 0 𝐼𝜆 𝑑𝜆, and, 𝑆 = 0 𝑆𝜆 𝑑𝜆
Then,
𝑑𝐼
cos 𝜃 =𝐼−𝑆
𝑑𝜏𝑣
9
Plane Parallel Atmosphere
𝑑𝐼
cos 𝜃 𝑑𝜏 = 𝐼 − 𝑆 … (1)
𝑣
Integrating over all solid angles,
Radiant flux,
𝑑 4𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋
4𝜋
න 𝐼 cos 𝜃𝑑Ω = න 𝐼𝑑Ω − 𝑆 න 𝑑Ω
𝑑𝜏𝑣 0 0 0 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑 = න 𝐼 cos 𝜃𝑑Ω
0
𝑑𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑
= 4𝜋( 𝐼 − 𝑆)
𝑑𝜏𝑣
2𝜋 𝜋
1 2𝜋 𝜋
න න cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙 = න 𝑑𝜙 න sin 2𝜃𝑑𝜃 = 0
Integrating cos 𝜃 × (1) 𝑐𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜙=0 𝜃=0 2 0 0
𝑑 4𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋
Radiation pressure,
න 𝐼 cos2 𝜃𝑑Ω = න 𝐼 cos 𝜃 𝑑Ω − 𝑆 න cos 𝜃 𝑑Ω
𝑑𝜏𝑣 0 0 0 1
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝐼 cos2 𝜃𝑑Ω
𝑐
𝑑𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 1
= 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑑𝜏𝑣 𝑐
10
Plane Parallel Atmosphere
𝑑𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 1
= 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑑𝜏𝑣 𝑐
To write above equation in spherical coordinates, let
𝜃′
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑠 =
cos 𝜃′
−cos 𝜃 ′ 𝑑𝐼𝜆
= 𝐼𝜆 − 𝑆𝜆
𝜅𝜆 𝜌 𝑑𝑟 1 𝑑𝐼𝜆
− = 𝐼𝜆 − 𝑆𝜆
𝜅𝜆 𝜌 𝑑𝑠
Multiplying both side by cos 𝜃′ and integrating,
𝑐𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑,𝜆 𝐹𝜆 0
1 𝑑
−
𝜅𝜆 𝜌 𝑑𝑟
𝜆𝐼 cos 2 𝜃 ′ 𝑑Ω′ = 𝜆𝐼 cos 𝜃 ′ 𝑑Ω′ − 𝑆𝜆 cos 𝜃 ′ 𝑑Ω′
11
Plane Parallel Atmosphere
𝑐 𝑑𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑,𝜆
− = 𝐹𝜆
𝜅𝜆 𝜌 𝑑𝑟
Integrating over all wavelengths,
𝑑𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜅𝜌
ҧ
= − 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑑𝑟 𝑐
12
Plane Parallel Atmosphere
In an equilibrium stellar atmosphere, every process of absorption is balanced by an
inverse process of emission; no net energy is subtracted from or added to the radiation
field.
For a plane-parallel atmosphere,
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑 = constant = 𝐹𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓 = 𝜎𝑇𝑒4
𝑑𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑
=0
𝑑𝜏𝑣
𝐼 =𝑆
1 𝑑𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜅𝜌
ҧ
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝐹 𝜏 +𝐶 = − 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑣 𝑑𝑟 𝑐
where 𝐶 is the constant of integration
13
The Eddington Approximation
⇒ assume a description of the angular distribution of the intensity
Mean intensity,
1
𝐼 = (𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝐼𝑖𝑛 )
2
Radiant flux,
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝜋(𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝐼𝑖𝑛 )
Radiation pressure,
2𝜋
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = (𝐼 + 𝐼𝑖𝑛 )
3𝑐 𝑜𝑢𝑡
4𝜋
= 𝐼
3𝑐
14
The Eddington Approximation
1
𝐼 = න 𝐼𝑑Ω
4𝜋 Ω
𝜋
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
1 2
= න න 𝐼 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 + න න 𝐼𝑖𝑛 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
4𝜋 𝜙=0 𝜃=0 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝜙=0 𝜃=
𝜋
2
𝜋 𝜋/2
𝜋
2𝜋 2 න sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 1
= 𝐼 න sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 + 𝐼𝑖𝑛 න sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
4𝜋 𝑜𝑢𝑡 0 𝜃=
𝜋 0
2
𝜋
න sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 1
𝜋
1 2
= 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝐼𝑖𝑛
2
15
The Eddington Approximation
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑 = න 𝐼 cos 𝜃 𝑑Ω
Ω
𝜋
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
2
=න න 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 cos 𝜃sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 + න න 𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
𝜋 𝑖𝑛
𝜙=0 𝜃=0 𝜙=0 𝜃= 2
𝜋
𝜋
= 2𝜋 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 0 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 + 𝐼𝑖𝑛 𝜋=𝜃cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2
2 𝜋/2
1
න cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 =
0 2
= 𝜋 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝐼𝑖𝑛 𝜋
1
න cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = −
𝜋 2
2
16
The Eddington Approximation
1
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = න 𝐼 cos 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝑐 Ω
𝜋
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
1 2
= න න 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 cos 2 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 + න න 𝐼𝑖𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
𝑐 𝜙=0 𝜃=0 𝜙=0 𝜃=
𝜋
2
𝜋
2𝜋 𝜋
= 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 0 cos2 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 + 𝐼𝑖𝑛 𝜋=𝜃cos 2 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2
𝑐 2
𝜋/2
2
1
2𝜋 න cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 =
= 𝐼 + 𝐼𝑖𝑛 0 3
3𝑐 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜋
1
න cos2 𝜃 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 =
𝜋 3
2
4𝜋
= 𝐼 1
3𝑐 𝐼 = 𝐼 + 𝐼𝑖𝑛
2 𝑜𝑢𝑡
17
Plane Parallel Atmosphere
The Eddington Approximation
⇒ assume a description of the angular distribution of the intensity
Mean intensity,
1
𝐼 = (𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝐼𝑖𝑛 )
2
Radiant flux,
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝜋(𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝐼𝑖𝑛 )
Radiation pressure,
2𝜋
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = (𝐼 + 𝐼𝑖𝑛 )
3𝑐 𝑜𝑢𝑡
4𝜋
= 𝐼
3𝑐 1
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜏𝑣 + 𝐶
𝑐
4𝜋 1
𝐼 = 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜏𝑣 + 𝐶
3𝑐 𝑐
18
Plane Parallel Atmosphere
At the top of the atmosphere (𝜏𝑣 = 0, 𝐼𝑖𝑛 = 0)
1 1
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝐼𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡
2 2
𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝜋 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝐼𝑖𝑛 = 𝜋𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡
4𝜋 1
𝐼 = 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜏𝑣 + 𝐶
3𝑐 𝑐
4𝜋 1 2
× 𝐼 = 0+𝐶 ⇒ 𝐶 = 3𝑐 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑
3 2 𝑜𝑢𝑡
4𝜋 1
𝐼 = 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜏𝑣 + 𝐶
3𝑐 𝑐
4𝜋 2
⇒ 𝐼 = 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜏𝑣 +
3 3
19
Plane Parallel Atmosphere
4𝜋 2
𝐼 = 𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜏𝑣 +
3 3
3𝜎 4 2
𝐼 = 𝑇 𝜏 +
4𝜋 𝑒 𝑣 3
3 2
For an equilibrium stellar atmosphere 𝑇 4 = 𝑇𝑒4 𝜏𝑣 +
4 3
𝐼 =𝑆
𝜎𝑇 4
𝑆=𝐵=
𝜋
𝜎𝑇 4
𝐼 =
𝜋
20
Plane Parallel Atmosphere
4
3 4 2
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑒 𝜏𝑣 +
4 3
If 𝑇 = 𝑇𝑒 ,
3 4 2
𝑇𝑒4 = 𝑇𝑒 𝜏𝑣 +
4 3
3 2
1= 𝜏𝑣 +
4 3
2
⇒ 𝜏𝑣 =
3
2
⇒ when looking at a star, we see down to a vertical optical depth of 𝜏𝑣 ≈ , averaged
3
over the disk of the star
21