Research Methods

Experiments
 An experiment is an investigation looking for a causal relationship in which an independent variable (IV) is manipulated and is expected to be

responsible for changes in the dependent variable (DV).

 There are three types of experiments:

o Laboratory experiments: A research method in which there is an IV, DV, and strict controls. This looks for a causal relationship and is conducted

in a setting which is not the usual environment for the participant with regard to the behaviour they are performing.

o Field experiments: This is conducted in a setting which is the normal environment for the participant with regard to the behaviour they are

performing. The researcher has control over a few variables, but it difficult to control all variables.

o Natural experiments: An investigation looking for a causal relationship in which the IV cannot be directly manipulated by the experimenter.

Instead, they study the effect of an existing difference or change. This is not a true experiment as the experimenter cannot manipulate the levels

of the IV.

 Laboratory experiments:

Weaknesses Strengths

Artificial Environment hence it lacks High levels of standardization hence it can be replicated easily to test
ecological validity for reliability

Participants may show demand High levels of control hence researches can be more confident that
characteristics the IV is directly affecting the DV
 Field experiments:
 Weaknesses Strengths

Situational variables are difficult to control so it is tough Realistic setting hence high ecological validity
know if the IV is affecting the DV

Issues in breaking ethics since the participants do not Limited demand characteristics so behaviour is
know that they’re taking part in a study more likely to be natural and valid
 Natural experiments:

Weaknesses Strengths

Difficult to know whether the IV caused an effect on the DV High ecological validity because the IV is naturally
occurring

Difficult to replicate to test for reliability as the event is Valid representation of a person’s behaviour
naturally occurring
 Each experiment consists of an experimental and control condition.

 An experimental condition is one or more of the situations in an experiment which represent the different levels of the IV and are compared,

either with one another or with the control condition.

 A control condition is a situation in which the IV is absent. This is compared to the experimental condition(s).

Self-Reports
 Self-reports consist of two main types — questionnaires and interviews.

 Questionnaires are a research method that involves asking questions, mainly written, to gain information from the participants.

 There are four types of questionnaires:

o Likert scales: questions asking whether the participant likes or dislikes something.

o Rating scales: questions that require the participant to represent their answer on the numerical scale provided to them.
o Open questions: questions which allow the participant to give detailed answers without any restrictions.

o Closed questions: questions which allow the participant to respond using a few, stated responses without the opportunity to expand on their

answers.

 Interviews are a research method using verbal questions asked directly to the participants.

 There are three types of interviews:

o Structured: an interview with questions in a fixed order which may be scripted. Consistency might also be required in the interviewer’s posture,

voice, etc., and hence these are highly standardized.

o Semi-structured: an interview with a fixed list of questions, however, the interviewer could add more questions if required to clarify or get details

on any previous answers.

o Unstructured: an interview in which most questions depend on the respondent’s answers. A list of topics may be provided that need to be

covered for the interview.

Weaknesses Strengths

Participants may give socially desirable Participants are more likely to give truthful Questionnaires
answers answers as it does not involve talking to
someone face to face

Too many closed questions may force an A large sample can answer the questionnaire in a
answer that does not reflect the short time span which should increase the
participant’s opinion representativeness and generalizability of the
findings

Participants may be less likely to give Lots of open questions will make participants Interviews
truthful answers as they are face to face reveal reasons as to why they behave in a
 Weaknesses Strengths

with the interviewer or because of social- particular way or have a particular opinion
desirability

Case Studies
 A detailed investigation of a single instance, usually a person, family or institute, that produced in-depth data specific to that instance.

Weaknesses Strengths

As the research is focused on one person, the case is unique As researchers are focused on one
which makes generalisations difficult individual, they can collect rich, in-depth
data which adds validity to the findings

Attachments may be formed between researcher and participant High ecological validity as participants are
which may reduce objectivity of data collected and analysis of it. studied in their everyday lives
This could reduce the validity of the findings.

Observations
 A research method that involves watching human or animal behaviour.

 An observer can be overt/covert or they can be participant/non-participant observers.

 Overt observers are when the participants know who the researcher is and that they are being observed. A covert observer could be present in

the group of participants observing them but they do not know who it is.

 A participant observer is one who watches from the perspective of being part of the social setting of the participants. A non-participant observer

does not become involved in the situation being studied.

 An observation can be structured/unstructured or naturalistic/controlled.

 A structured observation is a study in which the observer records only a limited range of behaviours. An unstructured observation is one in which

the observer records a range of behaviours, which is usually confined to a pilot study to refine the behavioural categories.

 A naturalistic observation is a study conducted by watching the participants’ behaviour in their normal environment without interference from the

researcher in either social or physical environment. A controlled observation is one which is conducted by watching the participants’ behaviour in

a situation in which the social or physical environment has been manipulated by the researcher.

 General:

Weaknesses Strengths

If the participants are aware of the observation, they may not act If participants are unaware of the
‘naturally’ but show more socially desirable behaviour. This can observation taking place - increases
reduce the validity of the findings ecological validity

It may be difficult to replicate the study if it is naturalistic as many As behaviours are ‘counted’, data can
variables cannot be controlled which reduces the reliability be analysed statistically with minimal
bias
 Participant observation:

Weaknesses Strengths

There are ethical problems of informed consent High ecological validity as the participants are observed in a
real-life setting

The presence of an outsider can change the As the observers become involved with the group, they are
behaviours of the group members. This lowers more likely to understand the motives and reasons for
the validity of the findings behaviours which increases the validity of the findings
 Non-participant observation:
 Weaknesses Strengths

It can be difficult to make detailed observations and to Participants behaviour will not be affected by
produce qualitative data that allows understandings as to observation because the observer is out of sight
why the behaviours are occurring

Researchers’ observations are more likely to be

objective as they are detaching from the people
they are observing
 Structured observation:

Weaknesses Strengths

The sampling of observed behaviour tends to be restricted The behavioural checklist allows objective
and does not give an idea of the reasons as to why the quantitative data to be collected which can then
behaviours are occurring be analysed statistically
 Unstructured observation:

Weaknesses Strengths

Observers may easily be drawn to eye catching They can generate in-depth, rich quantitative data
behaviours and hence may not fully represent all the that can help explain why behaviours are occurring
behaviours
 Naturalistic observation:

Weaknesses Strengths

Very little control over extraneous variables which As participants are unaware that they are being watched,
makes it difficult to draw a cause and effect they should behave more naturally, removing the chances
relationship of demand characteristics

Replication may be difficult as there cannot be a High ecological validity as the observation takes place in a
totally standardised procedure, hence making it natural setting
difficult to test for reliability
 Controlled observation:

Weaknesses Strengths

An artificial situation can easily influence As the set-up is controlled, the observers can be more confident
participants’ behaviour about what is causing the behaviours

Low ecological validity as the setting is Less chance of extraneous variables affecting participants’
artificial behaviour

Correlations
 A research method which looks for a causal relationship between two measured variables. A change in one variable is related to a change in the

other, although, the changes cannot be assumed to be causal. None of the variables are manipulated, they are only measured.

 A positive correlation is a relationship in which the increase in one variable accompanies an increase in the other.

 A negative correlation is a relationship in which the increase in one variable accompanies a decrease in the other.

 No correlation refuters to a situation where no definite trend occurs and the two mentioned variables do not appear to be related to each other.

Weaknesses Strengths

Issues of causality because there could be a third variable The researchers easily establish a cause and
affecting the changes effect relationship

Correlations are restricted to research that are quantitative and Correlations do not require any manipulation
so they cannot be used to measure why behaviours are so can be used where experiments are
occurring unethical or impractical

Hypotheses and Aims

 An aim tells you the purpose of the investigation. It is generally expressed in terms of what the study intends to show. It is written before the

experiment is carried out and does not predict the outcomes.

 A hypothesis is a testable statement predicting a difference between levels of the IV in an experiment or a relationship between variables in a

correlation.

 An alternative hypothesis is the testable statement which predicts the difference or relationship between the variables in a particular

investigation.

 There are three types of hypothesis.

o A directional (one-tailed) hypothesis is a statement predicting the direction of a relationship between variables.

o A non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis is a statement predicting only that one variable will be related to the other, not the direction of the

relationship.

o A null hypothesis is a testable statement stating that any difference or correlation in the results is due to chance.

Variables
 Independent variable (IV): the factor under investigation in an experiment which is manipulated to create two or more conditions and is expected

to be responsible for changes in the DV.

 Dependent variable (DV): the factor in an experiment which is measured and is expected to change under the influence of the IV.

 Operationalization is the definition of variables so that they can be accurately manipulated, measured or quantified and replicated.

Experimental Design
 This is the way in which participants are allocated to the different levels of the IV.

 An independent measures design is an experimental design in which a different group of participants is used for each IV level. If the IV is

naturally occurring, the researcher must use it.

 A repeated measures design is an experimental design in which participants perform at every IV level. It cannot be used if the IV is naturally

occurring. It also uses counterbalancing (ABBA design).

 A matched pairs design is an experimental design in which participants are arranged in pairs. Each pair is similar in important ways to the

study, and one member performs at a different level of the IV.

 Independent measures design:

Weaknesses Strengths

There may be participant variables As participants take art on only one condition, they are less likely
affecting the DV rather than the IV to guess the aim of the study, hence reducing the effects of
demand characteristics

More participants are required for this type There are no order effects that can reduce the validity of the
of design as compared to repeated findings
measures
 Repeated measures design:

Weaknesses Strengths

There is a chance of demand characteristics as participants may Eliminates any participant variables as all
work out the aim or change their behaviour. of them take part in all conditions

Order effects can affect the findings of the study and reduce its Fewer participants are needed as
validity. This could be overcome using counterbalancing. compared to independent measures
 Matched pairs design:

Weaknesses Strengths

Trying to match participants’ similar traits is very time-consuming. Matching participants as closely as
possible on measurable traits may help
control for individual differences
 Weaknesses Strengths

affecting the results.

Trying to match people exactly is impossible as there will always be This design is better suited when a
individual differences from one person to another. Therefore, the repeated measures design may not work
study may lack internal validity if these differences affect the IV due to an order effect that may affect
rather than the experimental condition. results.

The sample may be smaller as trying to find a large sample of

people matching similar traits may be difficult. This may mean the
findings may lack external validity.

Controlling of Variables
 It is essential to control variables to be certain about the findings of a study.

 An extraneous variable is a variable which either acts randomly, affecting the DV in all levels of the IV, or systematically, affecting only one level

of the IV (called a confounding variable), so can obscure the effect of the IV, making the results difficult to interpret.

 A situational variable is a confounding variable caused by an aspect of the environment.

 Participant variables are another confounding variable caused by the individual differences of participants.

 Control is a way to keep any potential extraneous variables constant. These are required to ensure that the results of the study are reliable.

Types of Data
 There are two types of data: qualitative and quantitative.

 Qualitative data is descriptive, in-depth data indicating the quality of a psychological characteristic.

Weaknesses Strengths

Interpretation of data could be subjective as In-depth, detailed accounts given in the words of participants
these are words rather than numbers are collected. It can be argued that using qualitative data is
not reductionist
 Weaknesses Strengths

There may be researcher bias - the researcher As the data comes directly from the participant, we can
may only select data that fits into the hypothesis understand why the participant thinks, feels or acts in a
or aim of the study particular way
 Quantitative data is the numerical data about the quantity of a psychological measure.

Weaknesses Strengths

As the data are numerical, they miss out on why As the data are numerical, it allows easier comparison
participants chose the answers that they did and statistical analysis to take place.

Using quantitative data can be seen as reductionist as Numerical data are objective and scientific, so there is
it involves researchers reducing complex ideas and a minimal chance of psychologists miscalculating the
behaviours to a number or percentage. data and drawing invalid conclusions.

Sampling of Participants
 A population is a group sharing one or more characteristics from which a sample is drawn.

 A sample is a group of people selected to represent the population in a study.

 The sampling technique is the method used to obtain the participants for a study from the population. There are three types of sampling

techniques.

o Opportunity sampling is when the participants are chosen because they are available at the time and place where the research is taking place.

o Volunteer (self-selected) sampling is when participants are invited to participate in studies via advertisements or emails.

o Random sampling is when all population members are allocated numbers, and a fixed amount of these are chosen unbiasedly, for example, by

picking out numbers from a hat.

 Weaknesses Strengths

Researchers are unlikely to gain a wide variety of participants to Large numbers of Opportunity
allow for generalisation participants can be obtained Sampling
relatively quickly and easily
because researchers use
people who are around

Researchers are unlikely to gain a wide variety of participants to Participants are more likely Volunteer
allow for generalisation because participants will only be of a to participate if they have Sampling
certain type already volunteered so the
drop-out rate should be
lower, making
generalisations stronger

Obtaining details of the TP to use to draw the sample may be Researchers can generalise Random
difficult - a representative sample cannot be guaranteed the target population (TP) Sampling
with more confidence

Researchers may gain a ‘perfect sample’ but still have the

problem that participants will not take

Validity
 Validity is the extent to which the researcher is testing what they claim to be testing.

 Internal validity is how well an experiment controls confounding variables. This allows the researcher to be more confident about the causal

relationship.

 Ecological validity is the extent to which the findings in one situation would generalise to other situations. This is influenced by whether the

situation represents the real world effectively and whether the task is relevant to real life.

 Mundane realism is the extent to which a task represents the real-world situation.
 Face validity is a measure of validity indicating whether a measure appears to test what it claims to.

 Concurrent validity is when a test correlates well with a measure that has previously been validated.

 Generalizability is defined as how widely the findings of a study apply to other settings and populations.

 Demand characteristics are features of an experiment that give away the aims. This could cause participants to change their behaviour and

hence reduce the validity of the study.

 Objectivity is an unbiased viewpoint that is not affected by an individual’s feelings, beliefs or experiences, so should be consistent between

different researchers. This would increase the validity of the study.

 Subjectivity is a personal viewpoint which may be biased by one’s feelings, beliefs or experiences and may differ between researchers. Since

this is not consistent, it may reduce the validity of the study.

Reliability
 This is the extent to which a procedure, task or measure is consistent.

 Internal reliability refers to whether the procedures are standardised so that each participant experiences the same thing.

 External reliability is the extent to which the results of a procedure can be replicated from one time to another, gaining consistent results.

 Inter-rater/inter-observer reliability refers to the extent to which two researchers interpreting qualitative responses will produce the same records

from the same raw data.

 There are two methods to test the reliability of a study: the split-half method and the test-retest method.

 The split-half method involves the results of the first half of the questionnaire or interview to be the same as the results of second half when the

questions are the same in both halves but presented in different a manner.
 The test-retest method is a way to measure the consistency of a test or task by using it twice and then comparing the results of each time to

check how similar they are.

Data Analysis
 Measures of Central Tendency: a mathematical way to determine the typical or average score from a data set. This includes the mean, median

and mode.

 Mean is calculated by adding all the scores in a data set and dividing them by the number of scores in the data set.

 Median is the middle score of a data set when it is ranked in order (ascending order).

 Mode is the most frequent score in a data set.

 Measures of spread: a mathematical way to describe the variation or spread within a data set. This includes the range and the standard

deviation.

 The range is between the most significant and negligible values with an addition 1.

 Standard deviation calculates the average difference between each score and the data set's mean.

 The normal distribution is an even spread of a symmetrical variable about the mean, median and mode. It forms a bell-shaped curve and is

symmetrical.

 Bar charts are graphs used for data in discrete categories and total or average scores. There are gaps between the columns as the data is not

related linearly.

 A histogram is used to illustrate continuous data.

 A scatter graph is a way to display data from a correlational analysis.