Science notes with key words
Unit 1 : cells
Living organisms are composed of cells, which are the fundamental structural units
of life. Animal cells consist of a nucleus that contains genetic information and
coordinates cellular activities, cytoplasm where metabolic chemical reactions occur,
and a semi-permeable cell membrane that regulates the transport of substances.
Plant cells possess these features in addition to a rigid cellulose cell wall for
structural rigidity, a large permanent vacuole filled with cell sap to maintain turgidity,
and chloroplasts containing chlorophyll to capture light energy for
photosynthesis. Specialized cells are adapted for specific roles: root hair cells
have a long, thin extension to provide a large surface area for the absorption of
water and minerals; ciliated cells feature hair-like projections called cilia that move
in a wave to transport mucus away from the lungs; and red blood cells lack a
nucleus to provide more space for haemoglobin to transport oxygen.
Unit 2: Materials and Their Structure
All matter is composed of atoms, which are the smallest particles of an element. An
element is a pure substance consisting of only one species of atom, such as
Oxygen (O2) or Iron (Fe). Molecules are formed when two or more atoms are
chemically bonded together, whereas compounds are formed when atoms of two or
more different elements chemically bond in fixed proportions. Key compounds
include Water (H2O) made of 2 hydrogen and 1 oxygen atoms, Carbon Dioxide
(CO2) consisting of 1 carbon and 2 oxygen atoms, Sodium Chloride (NaCl) made
of 1 sodium and 1 chlorine atom, and Methane (CH4) containing 1 carbon and 4
hydrogen atoms. Mixtures consist of different substances that are physically
combined but not chemically bonded, allowing them to be separated via physical
processes like filtration (solid from liquid), evaporation (solute from solution), or
chromatography (separating dyes).
Unit 4: Grouping and Identifying Organisms
The seven characteristics of life are movement, respiration, sensitivity, growth,
reproduction, excretion, and nutrition, which define all living organisms and can be
remembered by the acronym MRS GREN. Viruses are studied specifically because
they do not show all these characteristics, such as growth or respiration, unless they
are inside a host cell, leading to scientific debate about whether they are truly living
entities. A species is a group of organisms that can breed together to produce fertile
offspring, which is how scientists distinguish different groups from one another.
Classification is the system used to sort these organisms into five kingdoms—
animals, plants, fungi, protozoa —based on their cell structure and how they obtain
nutrients. To identify unknown organisms, scientists use a dichotomous key, which is
a practical tool made of a series of two-choice questions based on observable
physical features that leads directly to the correct name of the organism.
Unit 5: Properties of materials
Materials are classified as metals, which are typically shiny, malleable, and
excellent conductors of heat and electricity, or non-metals, which are usually brittle
insulators with lower melting points. An alloy is a mixture of a metal with at least
one other element, such as steel (iron and carbon) or bronze (copper and tin),
created to be harder than pure metals because different-sized atoms prevent the
layers from sliding easily. Mixtures are separated based on physical properties using
filtration for insoluble solids, evaporation for soluble solutes, distillation for liquids,
and chromatography for pigments. The chemical properties of materials are
measured on the pH scale from 0 to 14, where acids (pH 0–6) turn litmus red,
alkalis (pH 8–14) turn litmus blue, and neutral substances like water sit at pH 7.
Neutralization occurs when an acid and alkali react to produce a salt and water,
which can be monitored using Universal Indicator to see specific colour changes
from red (strong acid) to green (neutral) to purple (strong alkali).
Unit 7: Microorganisms
Microorganisms include bacteria, fungi, and viruses, which are too small to be
seen without a microscope. While some act as pathogens that cause infectious
diseases (like the flu or tuberculosis), others are utilized in biotechnology for
producing bread (yeast), yogurt (bacteria), and antibiotics (penicillium).
Decomposers play a critical ecological role by breaking down complex organic
matter from dead organisms, thereby recycling essential nutrients like nitrogen and
carbon back into the soil for producers to use.
Unit 8: Changes in Materials
he core focus is how particles behave during different types of changes. A physical
change occurs when a substance changes its state or shape, but no new
substances are formed. These are usually reversible, meaning you can get the
original material back. Examples include melting ice, freezing water, and
dissolving a solute like salt into a solvent like water; the salt particles simply spread
out between the water particles and can be recovered through evaporation.
Conversely, a chemical change is an irreversible process where atoms rearrange
to form entirely new substances with different properties. You can identify a chemical
reaction by looking for four key signs: a permanent colour change, the release of a
gas (fizzing or effervescence), a change in temperature (exothermic reactions like
burning release heat, while endothermic reactions absorb it), or the formation of a
solid precipitate when two liquids are mixed. A common exam experiment is the
reaction between an acid and a metal, which produces a salt and hydrogen gas;
this is confirmed by the "squeaky pop" test using a lighted splint. Another essential
reaction is neutralization, where an acid (pH 0–6) and an alkali (pH 8–14) react to
produce a neutral salt and water ($Acid + Alkali = Salt + Water$). To measure
these changes, we use the pH scale and Universal Indicator, where a green colour
signifies a pH of 7 (neutral).
Common Exam Questions for Practice:
Dissolving sugar in water: Is it physical or chemical? (Physical, because it's
reversible).
Burning a candle: Is it physical or chemical? (Both: melting wax is physical,
but the wick burning is chemical).
The "Squeaky Pop" test: Which gas does it identify? (Hydrogen).
Neutralization: What are the two products formed? (Salt and water).
COFIRMATION OF GASSES
H2-HDROGEN
When you bring a lighted splint near the gas the flame extinguishes with
a pop sound
O2-OXYGEN
When you bring a lighted splint near the gas the flame relights
CO2-CARBON DIOXIDE
Pass the gas in lime water and the lime water turns milky
MAGNIFICATION BIOLOGY EXTRA
he Magnification Formula
Magnification is how many times larger an image is compared to the real object. To
find it, you divide the size of the image by the actual size of the specimen.
$$Magnification = \frac{Image\ Size}{Actual\ Size}$$
Image Size: This is the size of the drawing or the picture you see on the
paper (measured with a ruler).
Actual Size: This is the real-life size of the cell or organism, which is usually
very tiny.
Units: Before you divide, the Image Size and Actual Size must be in the
same units. Usually, you will need to convert milli meters ($mm$) to micro
meters ($\mu m$).
o 1 mm = 1,000 \mu m
How to solve Magnification problems:
1. Measure the Image: Use your ruler to measure the length of the cell in the
diagram in milli meters ($mm$).
2. Convert: Multiply that measurement by 1,000 to turn it into micro meters
3. Divide: Divide that number by the "Actual Size" given in the question.
4. The "x" sign: Always write your answer with an "x" in front (e.g., x400) to
show how many times it has been magnifies.
PHYSICS NOTES
Unit 3: Forces and Energy
Gravity is a non-contact force that pulls objects toward each other; its strength
depends on the mass of the objects and the distance between them. Mass is the
total amount of matter in an object and is measured in kilograms (kg), while weight is
the actual force of gravity acting on that mass, measured in Newtons (N). Your mass
stays the same everywhere in the universe, but your weight changes depending on
the gravitational pull of the planet or moon you are on. Energy is defined as the
ability to make things happen and is measured in Joules (J). It exists in various
stores like kinetic (movement), chemical (food and batteries), and gravitational
potential (height). While energy cannot be created or destroyed, it is often
transferred between these stores, and some is usually "wasted" as thermal energy
that spreads into the surroundings.
Unit 6: Earth Physics
The Earth consists of four distinct layers with different physical properties: a thin,
rocky outer crust, a thick and semi-solid mantle that can flow slowly, a liquid outer
core made of iron and nickel, and a solid, extremely hot inner core. The crust is not a
single piece but is made of large tectonic plates that move very slowly over the
mantle, which leads to the formation of fold mountains and causes earthquakes over
millions of years. Sound is produced by vibrations and travels as longitudinal waves
through a medium like air, water, or solid rock. Because sound requires particles to
vibrate and pass the energy along, it cannot travel through a vacuum like the empty
space between planets. Eclipses occur in space when the Earth or Moon moves into
a specific position that blocks the Sun's light, casting a shadow; a solar eclipse
happens when the Moon is between the Sun and Earth.
EARTHQUAKE: they are the sudden rapid shaking of the ground caused by the
release of energy in the earths lithosphere usually due to tectonic plates.
VOLCANOES: they are the openings on the earths crust formed by the subduction
movement between tectonic plates
As the gas and dust is expelled from the vent, tremor are felt around.
After the gas and dust, molten magma comes out of the vent to form lava
This lava increases the size of the volcano and cools to form new rocks
Unit 9: Electricity
Electricity is the flow of tiny, negatively charged particles called electrons around a
complete, unbroken circuit loop. To measure the rate of this flow, we use a device
called an ammeter, which provides a reading in Amperes (A). In a simple series
circuit, there is only one single path for the electrons to follow, which means the
current remains exactly the same at every point in the loop. Materials that allow
electricity to pass through them easily are called conductors, such as copper, gold,
or graphite, while materials that block the flow are called insulators, like plastic,
glass, or wood. Adding more cells to a circuit provides more energy to push the
electrons, increasing the current and making lamps brighter. However, adding more
lamps increases the total resistance, which makes it harder for the current to flow
and results in all lamps becoming dimmer.