Unit 1:Cells

UNIT 1.1 :Plant cells

Cells are the basic unit of life and the building blocks of life. They are not visible through the
naked eye and are only visible through a microscope. They are also tightly packed like a
honeycomb structure. All organisms are made up of cells.

Parts of an Palisade(Plant) cell:

CELL WALL: Cell wall gives shape to the cell as it is rigid and stiff . The rigidness is due to
cellulose(complex carbohydrate)
CELL MEMBRANE: All cells have a cell membrane, it is thin and flexible lying on the inner
edge of the cell [Link] controls what goes in and out of the cell.
NUCLEUS:It is an organelle found in almost all of the cells,It is like the brain of the cell
controlling all the activities
CYTOPLASM:The cytoplasm which is comparable to clear jelly, this is where all the chemical
reactions that keep the cell alive take place.
Sap Vacuole: It is a big fluid filled space inside the plant [Link] liquid has many
substances dissolved in water . It has solutions of sugars [Link] takes up 60-90 percent of the
cell [Link] gives turbidity to the cell.

CHLOROPLAST:Plants that need sunlight will usually have chloroplast. They are like the
kitchen of the cell. They look green because of the chlorophyll present inside [Link]
also help them do photosynthesis
MITOCHONDRIA:Every plant cell has mitochondria it is where energy is released from food
The food

Steps to look at an onion cell

1.​ Cut a small 1 cm² piece of onion.
 2.​ Place a drop of water on a clean microscope slide.
3.​ Peel a thin layer from the inside of the onion piece.
4.​ Place the layer into the water drop and spread it flat.
5.​ Carefully lower a cover slip over the onion, avoiding air bubbles.
6.​ Adjust the microscope to the smallest objective lens.
7.​ Position the slide on the stage with the onion over the hole.
8.​ Look through the eyepiece and focus until the onion cells are visible.
9.​ Draw some of the observed cell

Unit 1.2:Animal cells

Diagram:

Steps for examining a cheek cell:

Collect a Sample – Gently scrape the inside of your cheek using a clean cotton
swab.
Prepare the Slide – Place a small drop of water on a clean microscope slide.
Transfer the Cells – Rub the cotton swab in the water drop to transfer the cheek
cells.
Stain the Cells – Add a drop of methylene blue stain to make the cells more visible.
Cover the Sample – Carefully place a cover slip over the sample, avoiding air
bubbles.
Set Up the Microscope – Adjust the objective lens to the lowest power.
Examine the Cells – Place the slide on the microscope stage and focus until the
cells are visible.
Observe and Draw – Identify the nucleus and cell membrane, then sketch what you
see:

Unit 1.3:Specialised cells

RED BLOOD CELLS (RBC): RBCs are produced in the bone [Link] are
biconcave disk shaped cells. They don’t have a nucleus but have a red colour
pigment called haemoglobin. They have a lifespan of 120 [Link] function is to
transport oxygen to different parts of the [Link] are small and can easily get
through capillaries to deliver oxygen.

NEURONS:Neurones are cells from the nervous system. They are connected to the
muscles. They receive and transmit signals to different parts of the [Link] help in
passing messages, They contain axons and dendrites.

CILIATED CELLS:Ciliated cells are the tiny hairlike structures present on the trachea
in the respiratory system . The cilia present on the cells help filter all kinds of dust
and bacteria and helps make mucus which is present in the bacteria
 UNIT 1.4
TISSUES:When many similar cells perform the same function eg. muscle

CILIATED TISSUES: They line the respiratory tract and they help to sweep/push the mucus
that has trapped germs, pathogens and dust, outside the body through the nostrils

UNIT 4
4.1 GROUPING AND IDENTIFYING ORGANISMS

Movement – Living things move, either by themselves (like animals) or through growth and
response to stimuli (like plants turning toward sunlight).
Respiration – The process of breaking down food to release energy. This can be aerobic
(with oxygen) or anaerobic (without oxygen).
Sensitivity – The ability to detect and respond to changes in the environment, such as light,
temperature, or touch.
Growth – All living things grow by increasing in size or developing new cells.
Reproduction – The ability to produce offspring
Excretion – The removal of waste products from the body, like carbon dioxide in humans or
oxygen in plants.
Nutrition – The intake of food or nutrients to provide energy and support growth, either
through eating (animals) or photosynthesis (plants).
4.2 VIRUS

Introduction to Viruses

Viruses are microscopic infectious agents that can only reproduce inside the cells of living
organisms. They are much smaller than bacteria and are considered non-living because they
do not carry out life processes on their own.

Structure of a Virus

Viruses have a simple structure, which includes:

●​ Genetic Material – Either DNA or RNA, which carries instructions for making new
viruses.
●​ Protein Coat (Capsid) – Protects the genetic material and helps the virus attach to
host cells.
●​ Envelope (Optional) – Some viruses have an outer lipid membrane taken from the
host cell, which helps them infect new cells.

How Viruses Reproduce

Viruses cannot reproduce by themselves. They must infect a host cell to multiply. The viral
reproduction cycle includes the following steps:

1.​ Attachment – The virus attaches to a specific host cell.

2.​ Entry – The virus injects its genetic material into the host cell.
3.​ Replication – The host cell follows the virus's instructions and makes copies of viral
DNA or RNA.
4.​ Assembly – New virus particles are put together inside the host cell.
 5.​ Release – The host cell bursts, releasing new viruses that go on to infect other cells.

Types of Viruses

Viruses infect different types of organisms, including:

●​ Animal Viruses – Infect animals and humans (e.g., influenza, HIV, COVID-19).
●​ Plant Viruses – Infect plants (e.g., Tobacco Mosaic Virus).
●​ Bacteriophages – Infect bacteria (e.g., T4 bacteriophage).

Diseases Caused by Viruses

Some common viral diseases include:

●​ Influenza (Flu) – Causes fever, cough, and body aches.

●​ Common Cold – A mild viral infection affecting the nose and throat.
●​ HIV/AIDS – A virus that weakens the immune system.
●​ COVID-19 – A respiratory disease caused by the coronavirus SARS-CoV-2.

Are Viruses Living or Nonliving?

Viruses show some characteristics of life, such as having genetic material and evolving over
time. However, they do not grow, respire, or reproduce on their own, so most scientists
consider them non-living.

Bacteriophage

A bacteriophage is a virus that infects a bacterial cell and reproduces inside [Link] vary a lot
in their shape and genetic material.A bacteriophage may contain DNA or RNA. The genes
range from 4 to several thousand
4.3 What is a species

A species is a group of living organisms that can breed with each other and produce fertile
[Link] share the same characteristics but are not identical

For example, all domestic dogs belong to the same species because they can reproduce
together and have puppies that can also grow up and reproduce. However, a horse and a
donkey, while similar, are different species because their offspring (a mule) is usually sterile
and cannot reproduce.