English Note
Key grammar topics
- Part of speech : noun, verbs, adjectives, adverbs,
pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and articles
- Sentence types : simple, compound, complex, and
compound-complex
- Tenses : past, present, and future forms
- Subject-verb agreement : making sure the verb
matches the subject
- Clauses and phrases : building blocks of sentences
- Modifiers : words that add detail, like adjectives and
adverbs
- Active and passive voice
- Direct and indirect speech
- Punctuation : commas, full stops, apostrophes, colons,
semicolons, quotation marks, and hyphens
Outline sentence structure rules
Main sentence structure rules to follow :
- Every sentence needs a subject and a verb
. The dog barks.
. The subject tells who or what the sentence is about,
and the verb shows the action or state.
- A complete sentence must express a full idea
. She went home after school.
. not only after school.
- Use the right sentence types:
. Simple: one main clause
. Compound: two main clauses joined by and, but, or,
so
. Complex: one main clause + one or more dependent
clauses
- Keep subject and verb in agreement
. He runs.
. They run.
. Don’t mix singular and plural forms.
- Avoid fragment and run-ons
. A fragment is incomplete
. A run-on joins too many ideas without proper
punctuation or connectors.
- Use punctuation correctly: to separate ideas clearly,
especially commas full stops, semicolons, and
quotation marks.
Summarize parts of speech
Parts of speech are the different jobs words do in a
sentence
Nouns - name people, places, things, or ideas
Verbs – show action or state of being
Adjectives – describe verbs, adjectives, or other
adverbs
Pronouns – replace nouns
Prepositions – show position or relationship
Conjunctions – join words or clauses
Articles – point to nouns
Review punctuation conventions
Full stops: end a statement ( . )
Question marks: end a question ( ? )
Exclamation marks: show strong feeling or emphasis ( !
)
Commas: separate items, ides, or clauses ( , )
Apostrophes: show possession or missing letters ( ‘ )
Quotation marks: show direct speech or exact words
( “” )
Colons: introduce a list, explanation, or quote ( : )
Semicolons: join closely related sentences ( ; )
Hyphens: connect words or parts of words ( - )
Map writing skill categories
Writing skill categories can be grouped by the main purpose of
the text
Narrative writing – tell a story, using characters,
setting, plot, and tension.
Descriptive writing – creates vivid image using detail,
imagery, and sensory language.
Persuasive writing – tries to convince the reader using
opinions, reasons, and rhetorical devices.
Argumentative writing – presents a balanced case, with
clear points, evidence, and a reasoned conclusion.
Informative/explanatory writing – gives facts, explains
ideas, and aims for clarity.
Autobiographical writing – writes about real personal
experiences in the first person.
Transactional writing – includes letters, speeches,
articles, reports, and reviews, each with a specific
audience and purpose.
Break down narrative structure
Narrative structure is the framework used to build a
story, ensuring it flows logically from beginning to end.
Most stories follow a classic five-part pattern known as
Freytag’s Pyramid:
Exposition – The introduction where you establish the
setting, introduce characters, and set the initial mood.
Rising Action – A series of events or obstacles that build
tension and develop the central conflict.
Climax – The turning point or the most intense moment
of the story where the conflict reaches its peak.
Falling Action – The aftermath of the climax where the
tension beings to release and the consequences of the
turning point unfold.
Resolution (Denouement) - The final outcome where
loose ends are tied up and the story reaches a
conclusion.
Key tips: To make a narrative engaging, use pacing-
slowing down during descriptive moments and
speeding up during action- to control how the reader
experiences the plot!
Outline persuasive essay framework
A persuasive essay framework is designed to convince the
reader to adopt your point of view using a logical and emotive
structure.
Unlike a balanced argument, this framework focuses on
building a powerful, one-sided case:
Introduction – Start with a hook (a shocking statistic or
rhetorical question) to grab attention. Clearly state your thesis
statemen, your main stance on the issue.
Body Paragraph – Use the PEEL method (Point, Evidence,
Explanation, Link) for each reason. Incorporate rhetorical
devices like the “Rule of Three,” emotive language, and
anecdotes to strengthen your appeal.
Counter-argument – Briefly acknowledge the opposing view but
immediately rebut it (Prove why it is wrong or less important) to
reinforce your own position.
Conclusion – Summarize your main points and end with a call to
action, telling the reader exactly what they should think or do
next.
Key Tip: Use connectives like "Furthermore," "In
addition," and "Crucially" to guide the reader through
your logic!
Summarize argumentative writing steps
Argumentative writing differs from persuasion by focusing on a
balanced, logical exploration of a topic to reach a reasoned
conclusion. While persuasion tires to ‘win’ the reader over, an
argument evaluates multiple perspectives using the following
steps:
Define the Issue – Start with a neutral introduction that
explains the topic’s importance and outlines the
different viewpoints without picking a side immediately.
Present Evidence-Based Points – Build the “pro” side of
the argument using objective facts, statistics, and
expert opinions. Each point should be clear and
supported by data rather than just emotion.
ADDRESS THE COUNTER-ARGUMENT – Dedicate space
to the “con” side. Fairly represent opposing views to
show you have researched the topic thoroughly.
Evaluate and Rebut – Compare the strengths and
weaknesses of both sides. Use evaluative language
(Example. “While X is a valid concern, the data
suggests Y is more significant”) to show which side
holds more weight.
Reach a Reasoned Conclusion – Summarize the findings
and state a final position based on the evidence
presented throughout the text.
Identify POV options
To choose the right perspective for your story, you must
first identify the three primary Point of View options.
Each one changes how the reader experiences the
narrative and how much information they can access:
. First person – (I / Me / My): The narrator is a character
in the story. This creates an immediate, intimate
connection with the reader because we see exactly
what the character sees and feels.
. Second Person – (You / Your): This turns the reader into
the protagonist. It is less common but highly
immersive, often used in “choose your own adventure”
books or experimental fiction to make the reader feel
directly responsible for the action.
. Third Person – (He / She / They): An outside narrator
tells the story. This can be Limited (focusing on one
character’s thoughts) or Omniscient (knowing
everything), providing a more cinematic or “god-like”
perspective.
First person – I / me / my / we / our / us / mine (Deep
emotional intimacy and unreliable narrators)
Second person – you / your / yourself (High immersion
and making the reader feel “trapped” in the story)
Third person – he / she / it / they / their (Complex plots
with multiple characters or a broad scope)
Choose appropriate POV
Once you understand the options, you must choose the
appropriate POV based on the specific goal of your
scene or story. Selecting a perspective isn’t just about
pronoun; it dictates the “camera angle” and the level of
narrative distance between the reader and the
protagonist.
To make the right choice, consider what you want the
reader to focus on:
. Emotional intensity: If the story relies on internal
secrets or a specific character’s unique voice, choose
First Person. It forces the reader to live inside that
character’s head.
. Direct Engagement: IF you want to challenge the
reader or make them feel like a participant in a specific
scenario, choose Second Person. It is a powerful tool for
instructional or highly experimental pieces.
. Scope and Clarity: IF your story has a complex plot
where the reader needs to see things the main
character doesn’t, choose Third Person.
- Use Limited to stay close to one person’s journey.
- Use Omniscient to provide historical context or jump
between different locations.
Rhetorical Devices
A rhetorical devices is a specific linguistic technique
used to convey a message in a more impactful,
persuasive, or artistic way. Unlike stander
communication, which focuses purely on sharing
information, rhetoric focuses on the delivery and effect
of that information on the listener or reader.
These devices work by manipulating language in three
main ways:
- Meaning: Changing how we perceive concepts
(e.g., using metaphor)
- Sound: Creating a rhythm or mood through phonetics
(e.g., using alliteration)
- Structure: Organizing sentences to emphasize specific
points
(e.g., using repetition)
Identify major categories
To make the vast world of rhetoric easier to navigate,
we group these tools into major categories based on
how they function within a text. While there are dozens
of individual devices, most fall into one of those four
primary buckets:
- Figurative Language: Devices that use non-literal
comparisons to create vivid imagery or deeper meaning
(e.g., Metaphor, Simile, Personification).
- Sound-Based Devices: Techniques that focus on the
musicality and rhythm of words to make them more
memorable or evocative (e.g., Alliteration,
Onomatopoeia, Assonance).
-Structural Devices: Methods of organizing words,
phrases, or sentences to create balance, emphasis, or
dramatic tension (e.g., Parallelism, Antithesis,
Anaphora).
- Persuasive Techniques: Strategies specifically
designed to appeal to the audience’s logic, emotions,
or trust in the speaker (e.g., Ethos, Pathos, Logos)
Figurative – Create mental images (The word is a stage)
Sound – Create auditory impact (Sizzling summer sun)
Structural – Create rhythm / order (I came, I saw, I
conquered)
Persuasive – Win an argument (Using facts and
statistics)
Explore figurative language devices
Figurative language devices are tools that move
beyond the literal meaning of words to create vivid
mental images and emotional connections. Instead of
stating facts directly, these devices use comparisons
and exaggerations to help the audience “see” or “feel”
and idea.
- Metaphor: A direct comparison between two unrelated
things without using “like” or “as” (e.g., “The snow is a
white blanket)
- Simile: A comparison using Like or as to highlight to a
specific quality (e.g., “He is as brave as a lion”)
- Personification: Giving human characteristic to non-
human objects or ideas (e.g., ““The wind whispered
through the trees.”).
- Hyperbole: An intentional and extreme exaggeration
used for emphasis or humor (e.g., “I’m so hungry I
could eat a horse”).
- Synecdoche: Using a small part of something to
represent the whole thing (e.g., “Check out my new
wheels,” Where “Wheels” represents the entire car).
- Assonance: The repetition of vowel sounds inside
nearby words to create an internal rhyme or mood.
(e.g., “The cry of the fly high in the sky”) (long/echo)
- Irony: saying the opposite of what you really mean,
often to highlight a gap between appearance and
reality. (e.g., “After tripping on stage, you mutter, “Well,
that was graceful”
- Euphemism: a gentle, polite word or phrase that
replaces a harsh or blunt one. (e.g., “He passed ways”
instead of “He died”)
- Rhetorical question: a question asked for effect, not
an actual answer. (e.g., “Who doesn’t want to be
happy?”) (implies everyone does)
- Triple structure (rule of three): Listing three items in
parallel; our brain love patterns of three. (e.g.,
“Government of the people, by the people, for the
people”)
- Repetition: repeating a word or phrase to emphasise
and make it stick. (e.g., “I have a dream… I have a
dream today…”
- Direct address: speaking straight to the audience with
‘you’ to pull them in. (e.g., “You can make a difference,
you hold the power.”
A list – A series of connected items or facts. It creates
an overwhelming sense of evidence.
(e.g., We need to buy apple, milk, bread, and eggs.)
Study sound-based devices
Sound-base devices focus on the auditory qualities of
language to create rhythm, mood, and memorability.
While figurative language targets the ‘mind’s eye’,
these devices target the ‘ear’, making phrases ‘stick’ or
setting a specific tone, like the harshness of a storm or
the softness of a lullaby.
- Alliteration: The repetition of initial consonant sounds
in neighboring words (e.g., “Slippery slope”). IT creates
a catchy, lyrical effect.
- Assonance: The repetition of vowel sounds within
words (e.g., “The light of the fire”). This often creates a
sense of internal rhyme or flow.
- Consonance: The repetition of consent sounds
anywhere in the words, often at the end (e.g., “Pick up
the stick”).
- Onomatopoeia: Words that phonetically imitate the
sound they describe (e.g., “Buzz,” “Bang,” or “Hiss”).
- Cacophony: The use of harsh, discordant sounds to
create a sense of chaos or discomfort (e.g., “Klaxon
squawk”)