I.

The Renaissance & Humanism

●​ Defining the Era: The word Renaissance literally means "rebirth." It refers to the
revival of art, literature, and learning after the Middle Ages.
●​ Geography: The European Renaissance began in Italy (specifically in wealthy
city-states like Florence and Venice).
●​ Humanism: An intellectual movement that focused on human potential and
achievements rather than religious dogma. It aimed to revive the classical civilizations of
Ancient Greece and Rome.
●​ Key Figures:
○​ Father of Italian Renaissance Humanism: Francesco Petrarch, Father of
Humanism
○​ Desiderius Erasmus: A Christian Humanist who believed Christianity should
show people how to live good lives on a daily basis (inward piety) rather than
just practicing outward religious rituals.
●​ Language: Vernacular refers to the local spoken language of a region (like Italian,
French, or German). It was typically spoken by ordinary people, as opposed to Latin,
which was used by the Church and scholars.
●​ Artistic Techniques:
○​ Perspective: A technique that creates the illusion of three dimensions on a flat
(two-dimensional) surface. It uses a vanishing point to arrange objects so they
appear to recede into the distance. (Depth)
○​ Fresco: A painting done on fresh, wet lime plaster with water-based pigments.
As the plaster dries, the painting becomes an integral part of the wall.

II. The Protestant Reformation

●​ The Spark: Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses in 1517 in the city of Wittenberg,
Germany.
●​ Core Grievances:
○​ Indulgences: Certificates sold by the Church that supposedly pardoned a person
from the punishment for their sins. Luther opposed them because he believed
salvation was a free gift from God, not something that could be bought.
○​ Corruption: Luther was concerned with the worldliness of the Church, including
the "buying" of church offices and the political power-seeking of the papacy.
●​ Luther’s Theology:
○​ Salvation: Luther argued for "Justification by Faith," meaning salvation comes
through faith alone. He believed "good works" were the result of a saved person,
not the way to earn heaven. (Salvation comes through faith alone, not through
good works or buying indulgences. )
 ○​ Priests/Sacraments: He rejected the need for a special class of priests to
perform sacraments for salvation, believing in the "Priesthood of all Believers."
○​ The Bible: He taught that the Bible, not the Pope or Church tradition, was the
only true source of religious authority.
●​ Spread of Ideas: The Printing Press (invented by Johannes Gutenberg) allowed
Luther's ideas to spread rapidly. Politically, German princes supported him to gain
independence from the Holy Roman Empire.
●​ The Trial: At the Diet of Worms, Luther was ordered to recant (take back) his
teachings. He refused, and the Emperor issued an edict declaring him an outlaw.
●​ Other Reformers:
○​ Author of Institutes of the Christian Religion: John Calvin.
○​ Predestination: The belief that God has determined in advance who will be
saved (the "elect") and who will be damned.
○​ Theocracy: A government ruled by religious leaders or based on religious law.
●​ The English Reformation: King Henry VIII formed the Anglican Church (Church of
England) because the Pope refused to grant him an annulment from his first wife,
Catherine of Aragon.

III. The Counter-Reformation

●​ The Council of Trent: This council aimed to reform the Church by banning the sale of
indulgences and improving the education/discipline of priests (creating seminaries).
However, it strictly reaffirmed traditional Catholic teachings.
●​ The Jesuits: Officially called the Society of Jesus. Their primary mission was to spread
the Catholic faith through education and missionary work to counter Protestantism.
●​ The Inquisition: A Church court used to find and punish heretics. The Spanish
Inquisition specifically targeted Jews and Muslims who had converted to Christianity
but were suspected of practicing their old faiths in secret.
●​ Legal Changes: The Peace of Augsburg was significant because it formally accepted
the division of Christianity in Germany, allowing each prince to choose between
Catholicism or Lutheranism for their state.
●​ Social Restrictions: In Venice, Jews who would not convert were forced to live in a
segregated city quarter called the Ghetto.

IV. The Scientific Revolution

●​ The Universe:
○​ Heliocentric Theory: The theory that the Sun is the center of the universe.
Proposed by Nicolaus Copernicus.
 ○​ Geocentric Model: This was historically accepted because it matched what
people saw with their eyes (the sun moving across the sky) and aligned with the
teachings of the Church and ancient Greeks like Ptolemy.
○​ Johannes Kepler: He supported the Heliocentric theory but discovered that
planets move in elliptical (oval) orbits, not perfect circles.
●​ Major Scientists:
○​ Galileo Galilei: He discovered the moons of Jupiter, sunspots, and craters on
the moon using a telescope. He also experimented with falling objects, proving
they fall at the same rate regardless of weight.
○​ Sir Isaac Newton: Known for the Three Laws of Motion and the Universal Law
of Gravitation.
○​ Nicolaus Copernicus: He is not known for gravity or laws of motion; his focus
was almost entirely on the Heliocentric arrangement of the planets.
●​ Methods and Tools:
○​ Inductive Reasoning: The process of making broad generalizations based on
specific sensory observations and experiments.
○​ René Descartes: He believed that everything should be questioned and
doubted until it could be proven by reason (famous for "I think, therefore I am").
○​ Barometer: An instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure. It was
significant because it allowed for weather prediction and a deeper understanding
of the earth's atmosphere.