Module 1 UNIT2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

CONTENT

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Scientific Management Theory
3.1. l Principles of Scientific Management
3.1.2 Elements of Scientific Management
3.1.3 Contributions to the Development of Public Administration
3.2 The Human Relation Theory
3.2. l The Hawthorne Experiments (Western Electric Plant)
3.2.2 Elements of Human Relation approach
3.2.3 Significant Contribution of the Human Relation Approach
3.2.4 Behavioural Science Approach
3.2.5 Behavioural Approach Cortribution to Management Decision Making
3.2.6 Administrative Theory (Henri Fayol)
3.2.7 Bureaucratic Theory (Max Webber)
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary

6.0 References/Further Reading

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Though Public Administration changed greatly in the 1950s and 1960s, the nature of such
changes and its significance can only be understood in terms of past doctrines. Up to the I 91h
century, the predominant concerns of the study of government affairs were political philosophy,
constitutional arrangement and law making.

However, the complexity in economic and social life was forcing a change of emphasis.
European countries had begun taking very seriously the training of civil servants and the
scientific study of administration.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this Unit, a student should be able to:

• trace the historical development of Public Administration

• state the significant contribution of different management school of thoughts to the
development of Public Administration.

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3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 The Scientific Management Theory

The industrial revolution of 1890 was several decades o Id. Power-driven machines were being
developed which now performed the work hitherto done by workmen with hand tools.
Therefore, the effective use of high output specialized machines was sine quo none of
the emerging industrial society. With it came the factory system and the efficient use of highly
productive machines and the need to develop an efficient man-machine and man-work
relationship. Thus the emergence of scientific management school of thought in 1900.

The scientific management school of thought evolved in three phases:

(l) Classical or traditional school of management theory - Administrative Management

Theory.
(2) Human Relations Movement or Neo-classical thoughts.
(3) Behavoural Science Approach.

The classical organizational school of thought comprised of two distinctive namely, scientific
management theory and administrative management theory. The scientific management theory
was developed by writers whose primary interest was to improve the practice of administration
and management. As they were not contented with mere description of organization like
bureaucracy theorists, they prescribed principles and practices for better organizational
performance. The emphasis of scientific management movement was on individual workers and
the foreman (supervisor) particularly in manufacturing activities.

Historically, Henry R. Towne initiated the search for a science of management but scientific
management is generally credited to Frederick who has been honoured with the title Father of
Scientific Management. He published a book in 1911 titled 'The Principle of Scientific
Management" in which he enunciated his thoughts on management and administration.

Taylor focused his unit of analysis on the physical activities of workman-machine relationship
and how productivity and job efficiency can be enhanced.

He believed that the principal object of management should be to secure the maximum prosperity
for the employer, coupled with maximum prosperity for each employee.

Taylor made a determined effort to change the system of management. He strongly believed that
workers were holding back production. His emphasis was productivity rather than the workers.
He felt that the greatest obstacle to a harmonious relation between Jabour and management Jay in
management's ignorance of what really is a proper day's work for a workman.

Taylor was resolutely committed to eliminating the inefficient and wasteful practices of the past.
To him workers were truly rational and real economic men who could be programmed to be
efficient machines.

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3.1.1 Principles of Scientific Management

• Scientific management is thought of broadly as application of the scientific method of study,

analysis and problem-solving to the organization.

• A set of mechanisms or techniques for improving organizational efficiency.

• Frederick Taylor's principles as guides for an effective management are as follows:

• Formal grouping and organization of employees into specialist functional departments.

• Hierarchically structured organizations with authority flowing from top to bottom

• There should be organizational chart indicating the chain of command and the means of
organizational communication.

• Span of control should be limited to allow for effective supervision.

• There should be job description.

• Authority should be commensurate with responsibility.

• Categorization of departments, e.g., "line" of "staff."

Other outstanding contributions to the scientific management school of thought were made by
Gantt, Frank and Lilian Gilbreth and Harnington Emerson.

Gantt (181-1919). He was a disciple of Frederick Taylor's idea of scientific management

especiaJJy the incentive system. He organized a charting system for production scheduling,
called Gantt Chart for which he is mostly remembered. The charting system is considered as one
of the management techniques.

Gantt's useful contribution to management includes the following:

• Man is goal-oriented: Here Gantt stressed the most important and valuable means of
stimulating interest in people is to set a task which gave birth to the idea of task and bonus
plan.

• Training should be the responsibility of management: To Gantt, management will benefit

from training its workforce because it will increase productivity.

• Authority and Responsibility: Gantt stressed the need to accord a corresponding authority
with the representative assigned to a worker. According to bun, this will encourage their
performance on the job.

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• Planning and Control: The work to be done must be properly planned be tore execution
and proper control mechanism must be put in place to ensure strict compliance with the set
goals.

Frank and Lilian Gilbreth (1868-1924; 1878-1972)

Frank and Lilian were husband and wife who immensely contributed their quota to the scientific
management movement. They concentrated on fatigue and motion studies. However, Lilian
showed interest on how best the welfare of the workers could be protected and encouraged.

Frank started his career as an artisan, a bricklayer. He later rose to the level of management
as was the case with Frederick Taylor. His experience while a bricklayer made him to note
that bricklayers used three different sets of motions:

(i) one for teaching apprentices

(ii) another for working fast
(iii) the third for deliberately holding down the pace.

He believed that motion and fatigue were interwoven and consequently every motion that
was eliminated also reduced fatigue. They then attempted to find the most economical motions
for each task, thus upgrading performance and reducing fatigue. They argued that motion
study raised workers' morale not only because of its obvious benefits but because it
demonstrates management's concern for the workmen. He also devised a system of dividing
work into its roost elementary elements which were called THERBLIGS. His goal was the
development of rretbods of least waste.

Hamington Emerson

He was another contributor to scientific management. His major works are: efficiency as
the basis for operational efficiency and wages. Emerson stated basic principles of efficiency
to be the following:

• Clearly defined goal(s)

• Common sense
• Competent courses
• Discipline
• The fair deal
• Dispatch
• Standards and schedules
• Standardized operations
• Written standards and practice institutions
• Efficiency reward.

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3.1.2 Elements of Scientific Management

The scientific management theorists developed a science for each element of a man's work
which replaces the old "rule of thumb" method.

They scientifically select, train, teach and develop the workman whereas in the past he chose his
own work and trains himself as best as he could.

There was cooperation with men so as to ensure that all of the work is being done in accordance
with the principles of science which has been developed.

There is an almost division of work and the responsibility between the management and the
workman. Scientific management further stressed that, although planning under the old system
was by initiative and incentive, the new system must be done by management in accordance with
the laws of science; and that, the most important single element in modern scientific
management is the task idea. That is, the work of every workrnan is fully planned out by the
management at least one day in advance and each man receives complete written instructions
describing in details the table to be accomplished as well as means of doing the work.

3.1.3 The Contributions of the Scientific Management School to the Development of

Public Administration

It advocated management by systems and standards and production as its major concern.

The work organization is purposeful with set goals to be achieved and that the goals of the
organization are to stimulate activities that must be performed.

That the best method of accornplishing organisational goals must be discovered, and the task of
the manager is to discover these methods, use them, and back them up with adequate
supervis ion.

lt developed motivation - theory of the piece rate system, which is a method of adequate
compensation for work done. A fair day's work deserves a fuir day's pay.

It also attempted to develop a first class and functional foreman.

It made contribution in the area of work study, motion and time study.

Planning is another area, as all work to be done must first of all be planned ahead.

The system also leads to specialization and work standardization.

It also made great contribution in the development of work instructions and work serving
implements.

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Lastly, it introduced wage system into management

Despite its several contributions to the development of public administration, the theory has been
criticized as follows:

• That it is too mechanical and impersonal and does not recognize workers' social group and
their informal relationships.

• That it is too interested in techniques which bring about too much pressure on workers.

• That too much specialization brings about monotony.

• That it is applicable in repetition production jobs.

• And that it over-emphasized purely economic motivation.

3.2 The Human Relation Theory

Human relationist movement also referred to as the tradr ional era or neo classicist movement.
The human relat ionists movement set in motion a vast amount of serious scientific research on
the psychological aspects of work and administration, /the movement focused on people and
their relationship in the organization rather than emphasizing increase in productivity as was the
case in scientific management theory.

3.2.1 The Hawthorne Experience

Human relationists movement started from the puzzling discovery of Elton Mayo and
Roethlisberger and N. J. Dickson in Chicago between 1924-1932. Theirs is regarded as a Neo•
Classical Theory. Aller their discoveries, they defined an organization as "a group of persons
with common objectives. The human relationists emphasized social factor at work, whch they
called the informal organization. They made a famous Hawthorne studies conducted between
1927 and 1933 to study the relationship of varying illurnmat ion of workers output at Hawthorne
plant of the Western Electric Company at Cicero near Chicago in USA.

The researchers noted that workers output increased with an intense illumination up to the point
where the workers could barely see what they were doing.

Elton Mayo and his associates have discovered that when special attention is given to workers b
management, productivity is likely to increase regardless of actual changes in the working
condition, this one being illumination.

Secondly, that informal work group, the social environment employers, has great influence on
productivity.

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To Mayo, the concept of the social man (motivated by social needs, job relationship and more
response to work group than to management control) of the rational man motivated by personal
economic needs.

It is known that the outcome of the Hawthorn experience marked the beginning of the
recognition of human factor in the effectiveness of an organization. Consequently, the privilege
of annual maternity and sick leaves accorded workers as at when due came to existence as a
result of the perception that the temporary absence of workers from work will not hinder or
reduce productivity but increase it when the workers are allowed sorre form of the rest.

Other proponents of Human Relationists Movement were Mary Parker Follet, Douglas
Macgregor and a host of others.

Mary Parker Follet (1968-1933)

Follet fell into the category of socio-political philosopher and a protagonist of human relations
perspective. Mary Parker Follet initiated the ideal of contingency or situational approach when
she spoke on the "Law of the Situation." She noted that different situations require different
kinds of knowledge and the man who possesses the knowledge demanded by a certain situation,
tends, in the best managed business, to becorre the leader. It should be noted that an integral
part of the human relations theme was the interest in group dynamics and interpersonal relations
in small groups. The emphasis on meeting the psycho logical needs of workers as a motivating
force was a major departure from the strict economic motivation concept. Follet point of view
was different from that of classical management theories.

Her basic contention was that any enduring society or organization must be based upon a
recogni:ion of the motivating desires of the individual and of the group. She believes that all
organizational problems are fundamentally human relations problem

Follet considered "coordination" as the key to building an effective organization. She expressed
"coordination" in four fundamental principles of organisation.

Douglas McGregor's Theory X and Y (1906-1964)

Douglas compared the two ideal type of management philosophies along with the assumptions
which emerged from these views of human nature as outlines below under X and Y assumptions.

Theory X Assumption

• That an average human being has inherent dislike for work and will avoid it if possible.

• That because of this human characteristics of dislike of work, most employees must be
coerced, controlled, directed and threatened with punishment to get them to put forth
adequate effort towards achieving organizational goals.

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• That an average human being lacks ambition, dislikes responsibilities, prefers to be led.

• He is by nature resistant to change.

• That he is self-centred, indifferent to organization needs.

Theory Y Assumption

Theory Y is the opposite of theory X. Theory Y assumption describes man in his objective
nature and this must have been based on the Human Relations theory.

The assumptions of the Y theory include the following:

• That commitment to organizational objective is a function of reward associated with their

achievements.

• That the average human-being learns under adequate conditions.

• That external control and threat of punishment are not the only means of bringing about
efforts towards organizational objective to which they are committed.

• That the average human being does not inherently dislike work.

• And that under the conditions of modern industrial life the intellectual potentialities of the
average human being are only partially realized or utilized.

3.2.2 Element of Human Relations Theory

Elton Mayo is generally regarded as the father of the school. Mayo and his associates
discovered, after the Hawthorne experiment, that:

• The amount of work out by a worker hence organizational level of efficiency is determined
by his social capacity and not his physical capacity.

• That the non-economic rewards play a central role m determining the motivation and
happiness in the work place.

• That the highest specialization is by no means the most efficient form of division of labour.

• That the worker do not react to management and its norms and rewards as individuals but as
members of a group or groups.

• They emphasized the roe of communication, participation and leadership m setting and
enforcing group nonns.

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• The human re lat ions school discovered three variants of leaderships: authoritarian, who uses
order in directing groups but remains aloof democratic leader who allows for participation in
decision-making, laissez-faire leader who supplies knowledge to group members of a social
group working with the same objectives which may or may not correspond with
organizational objectives.

3.2.3 The Human Relations Theory and Contribution to the Development of

Public Administration

Through the Human Relation Approach, the importance of the human element in work
organization is stressed. The concept of informal group was developed. It helps the organization
and the management to view workers not only as individuals but as members of a social group
working with the same objectives which may or may not correspond with organization objective.

They made contributions in their discoveries of informal social group that help boost workers'
morale and production. The importance of the inforrnal group and knowledge of their activities
also helped management in taking decisions as it affects them and the organization. This
includes man's need for satisfying social interaction with others in the organization.

Finally, the approach made a great contribution to public administration because of its emphasis
on participatory management.

3.2.4 Behavioural Science Approach

Robert A Dahl and Herbert Simon are too great scholars that made significant cortributions to
behaviourism as an approach to administration.

According to Dahl in bis book "The Science of Public Administration" a study of certain aspects
of human behaviour must be a major priority in public administration. The study of
administration, therefore, must embrace the whole psychological man and must not presume that
man is a simple machine responding only an fully to goals of self-interest narrowly concerned.
His views and that of others Id to the development of science of public administration.

Chester Barnard originated much of the behavioural science approach. ln his book titled
"Function of the Executive" he introduced social aspect into the analysis of administrative
functions and processes, though a theory of cooperation and orgnisations focused principally on
the role of human beings as the starting po int for the success of any administrative organization.

He equally brought into being a comprehensive theory of cooperative behavior in all formal
organization - cooperative system. He sees the entire organization as a system making up for
inter-related and inter-dependent units functioning differently and the functions so performed by
different units contribute to the survival and overall existence of the organization. This
cooperative system, he maintained should have a common impersonal purpose, the process of
organizational communication to allow for functional dynamism within the organization and the
satisfaction of individuals needs and desires.

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Chester Barnard's concept was ore or less a mixture of both the formal and informal
organizations and in this perspective, sees a formal organization as a system of consciously
coordinated activities to two or more people.

The two types of organizations that Chester Barnard focused on are relatively inter-related
and inter-dependent on each other.

Another important area emphasized by Chester Barnard is the vital role of communication
in modern organizations. He maintained that managers accomplish the funct ions of
planning, organizing, leading and controlling, and that communication is the activity to which
managers devote an overwhelming proportion of their time. Effective communication in
organizations involves getting an accurate message from one person to another or perhaps to
several people. Unclear organizational communication lines, according to Chester Barnard, can
make a complex idea or process completely unintelligible.

In their interpersonal roles, managers or administrators act as the figure heads and leaders
of their organizational unit, interacting with subordinates, customers in the organization,
and in their informational roles, administrators seek information from peers, subordinates
and other personal contacts about anything that may affect their job and responsibilities.

Chester Barnard also emphasized the motivational techniques as a crucial force in organizational
growth and development. Here, the extent to which an organisation succeeds depends on
the way in which individuals in the organization are treated. The attention here is on the rnanner
or system of recruitment employed by an organization. It is, however, important to note that
the best hands which are the skilled Jabour be employed, the ability to recruit the best hands and
the ability to retain them through various motivational techniques. Behavioural science -
human relation theory- made tremendous progress because the discovery of the informal
group was a breakthrough in administrative thought.

3.2.5 Behavioural Approach Contribution to Management Decision-Making

Most of behavioural contributions centred on management/administration and their behavior

in work organization.

Since decision-making is the heart of administration, there is the need for rationality in taking
decisions so that the best decisions would be arrived at.

Decisions determine the success of an enterprise or administration and also its quality.
Management success, therefore, depends on the quality of decisions taken. Decision
is conunitment to one of several options. Decision is a movement in an on-going
organizational process at which a commitment is made.

A decision that maximizes benefit is a quality decision. A decision can be organizationally

rational, that is made towards achieving organizational goals. It can be personally rational if

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it is made to satisfy individual goal It can be objectively rational if it is based on facts. It can
be

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subjectively rational if it is relative and not fuctual. It can be deliberately rational if it is
deliberately brought about by an individual or the organization.

All these decisions, according to the behaviouralists, are to be made within the environment
surrounding such choices. An environment surrounding choice is described as a set of
alternative behaviours each leading to a definite anticipated consequence. Knowledge is to
discover a single unique possibility which is consequent on each behaviour. Therefore, to
discover this unique possibility we need to use those techniques that guarantee quality decision.
Such techniques include operational research, management game, critical path analysis,
performance evaluation, reporting technique and so on. These techniques are used by managers
and administrators today and it is significant contribution of the behaviouralists.

3.2.6 Administrative Theory by Henri Fayol (1841-1925)

The administrative management theory emerged concurrently with the scientific management
theory in the 12th century. The administrative management theory has some peculiarities in idea
with the scientific school of thought. Henri Fayo l, the founder of this management school, was a
French Geologist. He concentrated his management theory on the management level of the
organization. Hence, he was referred to as the father of administrative process. Fayol was the
first to present a breakdown of the functions of management as follows:

Planning: It is an idea or method that has been thought about in details, in advance towards the
realization of organizational goals and objectives.

Organising: This involves the organisation's structure of authority, responsibility, assigning

tasks, human and material resources of the organization to specific role which will lead to the
attainment of organizational aims and objectives.

Commanding: This refers to directing the subordinates and making the staff do their work.

Coordinating: It refers to the correlation of the activities of all factors of production in the
organization with a view to achieving the organizational activities ..

Controlling: Controlling is to ensure that everything is done in accordance with the established
rules and expressed command, Fayol was the first to formulate a universal list of good
management principle as a guide in the management of decisions.

Henri Fayol also highlighted the principles of management as the fo Uowing:

• Division of Labor
• Authority and responsibility
• Discipline
• Unity of Command
• Unity of Direction
• Subordination of individual interest to general interest

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 • Payment for work done
• Centralization
• Scalar chain
• Order
• Equity
• Stability of tenure
• Initiative
• Esp irit -de-Corp.

3.2.7 Bureaucratic Theory by Max Webber (1864-1920)

Bureaucracy is a formalised and systematized method of administration which emphasizes

impersonal relationship, hierarchy of command and control, rationality, merit, objectivity
and formal communication.

Max Webber, a German Sociologist, is unduly acclaimed to have propounded the concept of
bureaucracy. He tried to give a model form of administration that was not in existence
anywhere. This was to aid the industrialized society.

The idea of bureaucracy though had already been mentioned by many scholars such as Von
Stein, Saint Simon, Spencer and Schomoller, but Max made it popular.

Max Webber's contribution to the study of organizations was his focus on authority structure
which caused him to group organizations in terms of the authority relations, and this has creates
substantial impact on the comparative study of administrative systems. Basically, Webber's
concept of bureaucracy is normally said to be the "Ideal Type" on its application to authority
patterns.

An ideal type of bureaucracy according to Max Webber, is a conceptual pattern bringing together
some relationships and events of historical life into a complex and consistent administrative
system

Bureaucracy forms an important element of the modernizing elite m many of the economically
less developed countries.

Before the present industrial stage in the western world, administration was carried out in
an informal way because positions of responsibilities were obtained through favour, and
officials had no training and possessed little competence. During this period, there was no
systematic and coordinated administrative action and in many cases, administrative actions were
governed by whims and caprices than reason and rationality. This method of administration
became irrelevant in the post industrial age as a result of administrative and societal transformation
which allowed for increasing need in expanding the number of public employees and systematic
methods of operations. This and many more forces compelled the early administrators into
establishing formal organizational structures based on impersonal rules and hence bureaucracy.
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Bureaucracy constitutes a social sub-cultural segment, the high prestige strata of the society.
Entrance into it was not theoretically barred to any section of the society, although in actual
practice only the traditionally privileged could provide the necessary general background and the
expensive education required for the success in the stiff tests prescribed for entry into the higher
hierarchy. Bureaucracy has a class bias and it is highly class stratified. It is upper crust,
functions as a privileged class. On the whole, it symbolizes achievement rather than ascription,
and it has corn! to have a distinct vested interests and is sensitive to all threats to its position and
privilege which it guards jealously against encroachments.

The concepts relevant to understanding Webber's types of authority system include power and
authority. Power is the ability to make other people do what they would not ordinarily have done
left on their own. It could also mean participation in decision-making or ability to bring about a
change in a desired direction. To Webber, power is the "probability that one actor within a
social relationship wiJI be in a position to carry out his own despite resistance."

Within the context of "ideal-type" power and authority exist when a command with a given
specific content will be obeyed by a given group of people - legitimate power without resistance.
Webber classified the ideal-type authority on the basis of legitimacy, authority exercised and
available staff.

Power is an ability to achieve results through concerted effort and action. But the evolution of
governmental techniques does not terminate with power. Power is able to include the ingredient
of force that makes government ultimately effectively, because of the support mobilized in its
favour. The force that power may deploy may be resented, resisted or disagreed with.
Opponents may have to submit to the decisions of power, but submission is different from
acquiescence. The imperatives of power may secure compliance but this is not the same as
allegiance.

Authority is a power that all accept as valid, right and adequate. What demarcates authority from
power is that the former is power recognized as "r ightful." Its exercise is, therefore, sanctioned
by those who approve the particular act or agent and is tolerated by those who disapprove it.
Confronted with authority, it is the citizens' duty to obey.

Resistance to power may be lawful; resistance to authority is regarded as unlawful. Power is

naked and authority is power legitimized.

According to Max Webber, there are different types of authority:

• Traditional
• Charismatic
• Legal - rational

Traditional Authority: Under traditional authority, power is reposed on traditional institutions.

The right to issue command and be obeyed is attributable to customs and belief system and

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traditional way of behavior of the people over a period of time. Legitimacy is claimed and
accepted on the basis of sanctity of order.

Personnel here are recruited from patrimonial - persons tied to traditional loyalties and non•
patrimonial personal loyalties. Many positions are occupied on the basis of kinship. But here
traditional administrative staff lacks a clearly defined area of competence, regular appo intrrent
and promotion, technical training.

Charismatic Authority: Charisma and personal magnetism is another type of authority. A

charismatic authority or right to command and be obeyed is attributed to personal qualities of the
leader. A leader with this attributes is better able to use personal identification, inspirational
appeals, and rational faith to influence subordinates. The subordinates will tend to identify with
him, imitate his behavior and possibly emulate his beliefs. An important characteristic of
charismatic leadership seems to be insight into the needs, hopes and values of followership.

Another attribute of charismatic leadership is a dramatic, persuasive manner of speaking which

enables the leader to enunciate the hopes, ideals and fears of followers and inspire faith in his
ability to lead them properly. Charismatic leaders usually radiate the impression of complete
confidence and intense inner conviction, which implies either that they really have extreme self•
confidence, or that they possess the acting ability necessary to project this impression to
followers. The charismatic leader appears somewhat mysterious and larger than Life, a person
who can be trusted to succeed where many cannot.

Legal Rational - Authority: Max Webber postulated the third ideal type of authority, which is
the foundation of modern civilizations, namely, legal - rational authority. It is based on a belief
in the legitimacy of the pattern of normative rules and the rights of those appointed or elected to
authority under such rules to issue command. Here, obedience is based on the legally established
impersonal rules and regulations governing a particular group of people within a stated society.

Legal- rational authority vests power on the office, rather than the occupier of the office. Thus,
anyone can rule as long as be or she comes to office according to the rules.

Legal - rational authority sometimes requires rational persuasion - a logical argument that
includes evidence supporting the instrumentality of the recommended behavior and a rational
faith which is the suggestion of a particular person occupying position of authority is sufficient
to evoke compliance by the subordinates without any necessary explanation

The subordinates act out of faith in the expertise and credibility of the person in authority.
Rational faith as an aspect of legal - rational authority is a form of influence that is most likely to
occur when the subordinate is confronted with a problem he has little or no knowledge of how to
solve it ad perceived as the person in the position of authority can be trusted to indicate the best
cause of act ion.

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4.0 CONCLUSION

Public Administration touches every aspect of human life. The greatest merit of public
administration lies in its educative value. The modem state is a welfare state and the
administrations are expected to provide the people with all the increasing demands for a
comfortable life.

5.0 SUMMARY

Public Administration is the action side of the government. Its importance as an instrument for
the expression of the will of the people, sustenance of democracy and as a discipline cannot be
over-emphasized. This unit was able to trace the growth of public administration from the
rudimentary .... Stage to the present day period of sophistication as expounded by Max Webber.

6.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Willoughby, W. F. (yr). Principles of Public Administration.

White, L. D. ( 1999). lntroduction to the Study of Public Administration.

Anifowose and Enemuo (yr). Elements of Politics.

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,