Aleksic and Milivojevic  Biotechnology for

Biotechnology for the Environment (2025) 2:17

[Link] the Environment

PRIMER Open Access

The plastic‑degrading capabilities

of Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Ivana Aleksic1*   and Dusan Milivojevic1*   

Abstract
The global accumulation of synthetic and bio-based plastics has intensified the demand for effective and sustain-
able degradation strategies. This study explores the plastic-degrading potential of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, focusing
on its degrading enzymes, biofilm formation, and biosurfactant production. The study highlights the limited deg-
radability of C–C backbone plastics such as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polystyrene (PS), in contrast
to ester-containing polymers like PET, PU, and bio-based plastics (PLA, PCL, PHA), which exhibit greater microbial
susceptibility. While P. aeruginosa demonstrates only partial surface modification of recalcitrant plastics, it achieves
substantial degradation of bio-based plastics such as PCL. Genomic profiling using PlasticsDB and PAZy databases
reveals homologs of plastic-active enzymes, including esterases and depolymerases, with potential roles in polyester
degradation. Furthermore, the integration of chemical pretreatment methods, such as pyrolysis of PE into metaboliz-
able alkanes, combined with microbial conversion into polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), underscores the importance
of hybrid chemo-biotechnological approaches. Despite biosafety concerns, P. aeruginosa emerges as a metabolically
versatile and genetically tractable candidate for precision-engineered bioremediation. This work positions P. aerugi-
nosa not as a standalone solution, but as a modular component within broader strategies for next-generation plastic
waste valorization and upcycling.
Keywords P. aeruginosa, Plastic polymers, Biodegradation, Biofilm formation, Enzymatic degradation, Rhamnolipids

*Correspondence:
Ivana Aleksic
[Link]@[Link]
Dusan Milivojevic
[Link]@[Link]
1
Institute of Molecular Genetics and Genetic Engineering, University of Bel-
grade, Vojvode Stepe 444a, Belgrade 11221, Serbia

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Aleksic and Milivojevic Biotechnology for the Environment (2025) 2:17 Page 2 of 8

Graphical Abstract

Introduction and allow horizontal gene transfer, potentially boosting

Plastic has become an essential material in modern soci- the efficiency of polymer breakdown [3, 4]. Among the
ety, with uses ranging from packaging and construction diverse microbial plastic degraders, Pseudomonas aerugi-
to healthcare and electronics. However, its durability nosa stands out due to its metabolic versatility, adaptabil-
and resistance to natural degradation have led to a global ity to various environments, and robust biofilm-forming
environmental crisis. Since the first synthetic plastic was capacity [5–7]. While traditionally studied for its patho-
made in 1907, production has risen to over 350 million genicity and antibiotic resistance [8], more recent find-
tons annually [1], with the vast majority accumulating ings suggest that P. aeruginosa biofilms may alter the
in landfills and natural ecosystems. Conventional dis- structure of plastics [9, 10].
posal methods, such as landfilling, incineration, and The most widely used types of plastics are polyethylene
chemical recycling, recover less than 10% of global plas- terephthalate (PET), polyethylene (PE), polypropylene
tic waste [2], underscoring the pressing need for sustain- (PP), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), and polyurethane (PU)
able alternatives. Microbial biodegradation has emerged which dominate global production due to their durabil-
as a promising solution, utilizing the metabolic capa- ity, flexibility, and low cost (Fig. 1). Overall, polymers
bilities of microorganisms to break down plastic poly- with inert C–C backbones (e.g., PE, PP) are less degra-
mers. Bacteria, particularly when organized in biofilms, dable than those with ester or amide linkages (e.g., PET,
possess enhanced resilience and enhanced enzymatic PU). In parallel, the use of bio-based plastics such as
activity, making them attractive candidates for plas- polylactic acid (PLA), poly(butylene succinate-co-butyl-
tic degradation. Biofilms provide a protective matrix ene adipate) (PBSA), and polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)

Fig. 1 Schematic representation of different types of plastics

Aleksic and Milivojevic Biotechnology for the Environment (2025) 2:17 Page 3 of 8

has significantly increased, reaching approximately 2.18 A number of studies have demonstrated the potential
million tons in 2023, and it is projected to increase to of P. aeruginosa to degrade both synthetic and bio plas-
about 7.43 million tons by 2028 [11]. That highlight is the tics, particularly through biofilm-mediated surface modi-
transition toward environmentally responsible polymer fication and enzymatic activity.
design. Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is a thermoplastic
Molecular weight, crystallinity, and surface hydropho- polymer with outstanding physical and chemical charac-
bicity further affect microbial attachment and enzymatic teristics, and it is fully recyclable, making it a key material
activity, and these structural differences are central to in sustainable plastic management. Its high crystallinity
evaluating P. aeruginosa as a plastic degrader [12]. Its and hydrophobicity make it highly resistant to environ-
metabolic adaptability, biofilm-forming abilities, and bio- mental and enzymatic degradation. P. aeruginosa biofilms
surfactant production may allow more effective interac- can colonize PET surfaces and induce minor physico-
tion with inert polymers. Understanding both polymer chemical changes, such as altered crystallinity and sur-
barriers and microbial strategies is key to assessing its face roughness, but substantial degradation has not been
biodegradation potential. Advanced analytical methods consistently achieved [12, 22]. Recent studies have high-
such as Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), lighted the role of esterases in cleaving ester linkages
nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), high-performance found in polyesters like PET, enabling partial depolym-
liquid chromatography (HPLC), and Thermally Assisted erization under mild conditions [23]. Of particular inter-
Hydrolysis and Methylation–Gas Chromatography est is the leaf-branch compost cutinase (LCC) enzyme,
(THM-GC) enable precise monitoring of polymer bond originally isolated from leaf-branch compost, which has
cleavage and metabolite formation [13]. Stable isotope- demonstrated exceptional activity against polyethylene
tracing approaches provide direct evidence of carbon terephthalate (PET) [24]. Bioinformatic analyses sug-
flow from polymers into microbial biomass or ­CO2 [14, gest that homologous esterases within P. aeruginosa,
15]. Omics-driven studies (genomics, transcriptomics, with similar catalytic domains such as the newly identi-
proteomics, and metabolomics) have revealed the genetic fied Pap1 enzyme, may exist in certain clinical isolates,
and enzymatic networks underpinning microbial plastic offering promising avenues for horizontal gene transfer
degradation, offering system-level insights into microbial or recombinant expression [25]. Additionally, the same
consortia [16, 17]. As AI tools rapidly advance, compu- clinical isolate of P. aeruginosa (PA-W23) was capable of
tational enzyme discovery workflows, including machine degrading the medically relevant plastic polycaprolac-
learning and protein language models, are accelerating tone (PCL), achieving 78% mineralization within 7 days.
the identification of novel biocatalysts capable of degrad- This finding highlights the remarkable plastic-degrading
ing diverse polymers [18, 19]. The integration of classical potential of P. aeruginosa and underscores its relevance
approaches and modern tools in exploring polymer bio- in both environmental and clinical contexts.
degradation processes emphasizes the interdisciplinary Polyurethane (PU) contains ester and urethane bonds
character of biodegradation research. that are susceptible to enzymatic hydrolysis by ester-
ases and proteases secreted by P. aeruginosa. Laboratory
Pseudomonas aeruginosa and plastic degradation experiments using PU films have documented significant
P. aeruginosa thrives in diverse environments such as soil, degradation over 20–30 days, with up to 30% weight loss
water, and industrial waste. Its survival under nutrient and clear evidence of surface erosion observed via scan-
limitation and resistance to antimicrobials make it suit- ning electron microscopy [12]. FTIR analysis confirmed
able for biotechnological applications, including plastic cleavage of ester linkages, and biosurfactants like rham-
degradation. As a metabolically versatile organism, it nolipids were found to enhance polymer accessibility by
can use hydrocarbons, alcohols, and amino acids as car- reducing the surface tension.
bon and energy sources [20]. This adaptability depends Polyethylene (PE), composed of a highly inert C–C
on extracellular hydrolases, oxygenases, and peroxidases backbone, is among the most resistant plastics to micro-
that transform complex substrates [21]. These enzymes bial attack. Nonetheless, P. aeruginosa has demonstrated
are crucial for oxidative transformations and cleavage of the ability to adhere to PE surfaces and initiate minor
polymer chains. Also, P. aeruginosa can form thick bio- degradation, probably through surface erosion. Stud-
films, which can further support survival and nutrient ies report surface pitting, reduced hydrophobicity, and
access. In plastic degradation, biofilms enable adhesion slight weight loss (approximately 20–25%) after pro-
to hydrophobic surfaces like PE and PET and local- longed incubation [26, 27]. Notably, low-density poly-
ize enzymes and biosurfactants, promoting surface ethylene (LDPE) exhibited pronounced surface pitting,
modification. decreased hydrophobicity, and around 20% weight loss,
which increased to questionable 50.5% after 2 months
Aleksic and Milivojevic Biotechnology for the Environment (2025) 2:17 Page 4 of 8

of incubation [28]. In contrast, high-density polyethyl- such as esterases, lipases, proteases, and cutinases are
ene (HDPE) showed greater resistance, with a maximum central to this process, targeting ester bonds within the
weight loss reported of up to 20% [29]. FTIR spectros- polymer matrix and facilitating depolymerization [34,
copy has revealed the emergence of polar functional 35]. Genomic analysis of PLA-degrading strains, includ-
groups, such as hydroxyl and carbonyl moieties, indicat- ing P. aeruginosa S3, Sphingobacterium sp. S2, and Geo-
ing oxidative surface modification rather than deep pol- bacillus sp. EC-3, has identified key genes involved in
ymer breakdown. Despite the growing number of these xenobiotic metabolism, biofilm regulation, and lactate
reports regarding PE biodegradation, the evidence for utilization, supporting their role in PLA biodegradation
true mineralization remains largely inconclusive. As criti- under mesophilic and thermophilic conditions [33].
cally emphasized by Jendrossek [30], most reports rely P. aeruginosa was shown to biodegrade the bio-based
on indirect indicators, such as weight loss, surface oxida- plastic poly(butylene succinate-co-butylene adipate)
tion, or fragmentation, without demonstrating complete (PBSA), mineralizing approximately 78% of the polymer
assimilation of polymer-derived carbon into biomass or into ­CO2 within 40 days [36]. This high mineralization
its conversion to ­CO2 by isotope-labeling techniques. rate underscores the remarkable biodegradation capacity
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), composed of a C–C back- of P. aeruginosa, positioning it as a promising candidate
bone with pendant chlorine atoms, also underwent for bio-based plastic waste treatment.
notable changes upon exposure to P. aeruginosa. Biofilm In addition to PBSA, P. aeruginosa has demonstrated
formation was observed on PVC surfaces, accompanied the ability to degrade polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), with
by surface erosion and structural alterations within the molecular weight reductions ranging from 7 to 17% and
polymer matrix. These modifications were associated up to 29% weight loss [37]. Clear zone formation during
with approximately 30% weight loss [31], suggesting that incubation with polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) further con-
despite its halogenated structure, PVC remains suscepti- firmed active biodegradation within 15 days [38].
ble to microbial degradation under prolonged incubation.
Polypropylene (PP) is one of the least degradable poly-
mers, with a saturated C–C backbone. While P. aerugi- PAZy‑based enzymatic profiling of P. aeruginosa
nosa can form biofilms on these surfaces, degradation is Number of genetic traits and enzymatic activities under-
minimal and limited to superficial modifications [32]. line the ability of P. aeruginosa to efficiently interact and
Polylactic acid (PLA) is a biodegradable polyester degrade polymeric substrates. P. aeruginosa PAO1 genes
derived from renewable resources such as corn and involved in plastic degradation were identified by blast-
sugarcane. Despite its eco-friendly profile, PLA exhib- ing (query coverage > 80% and > 60% identity) against the
its limited degradability under natural conditions, often PlasticsDB [39] and the Plastics-Active Enzymes Data-
requiring industrial composting for effective breakdown. base (PAZy) (Table 1) [40]. Notably, high query cover-
P. aeruginosa has emerged as a promising candidate for age and identity scores were observed for PET-degrading
PLA degradation, particularly strain S3 [33], which dem- esterases such as PpEst (tesA) from Pseudomonas pseu-
onstrates esterolytic activity at ambient temperatures. doalcaligenes and other environmental Pseudomonas
Studies have confirmed surface erosion, weight loss, and strains, suggesting conserved catalytic domains within
the release of lactic acid oligomers following microbial the genus. The detection of homologs to PU-degrading
treatment, with scanning electron microscopy revealing enzymes from Agrobacterium tumefaciens and bioplastic-
cracks and biofilm formation on PLA surfaces. Enzymes targeting depolymerases from Pseudomonas chlororaphis

Table 1 Comparative PAZy-based homology analysis of plastic-degrading enzymes in the P. aeruginosa genome
Plastic type Query coverage Identity Microorganism (enzyme) Reference

Synthetic plastic-petroleum based

PET 100 72.14 Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes (PpEst (tesA)) [41, 42]
PET 100 66.82 Pseudomonas sp. strain 9.2 (EstB) [43]
PU 99 62.14 Agrobacterium tumefaciens (amidase) [44]
Bio-based plastic
PLA 98 86.38 Pseudomonas chloroaphis PA23 (PHA depolimerase) [45]
PCL 98 85.66 Pseudomonas putida KT2442 (PHA depolimerase) [46]
PHA 94 65.43 Pseudomonas chlororaphis PA23 (lipase) [47]
Aleksic and Milivojevic Biotechnology for the Environment (2025) 2:17 Page 5 of 8

and P. putida KT2442 further supports the hypothesis access to plastics. Rhamnolipids also influence biofilm
that P. aeruginosa may possess latent or inducible enzy- architecture and dispersion, affecting colonization and
matic functions relevant to both synthetic and bio-based degradation dynamics. Rhamnolipids, as well-charac-
plastic degradation. terized biosurfactants produced by P. aeruginosa, have
This genomic evidence complements earlier functional gained increasing attention due to their multifunctional
predictions and reinforces the notion that P. aeruginosa, roles in bioremediation, emulsification, and microbial
despite not being traditionally classified as a plastic adhesion [49]. Their amphiphilic nature facilitates the
degrader, may serve as a reservoir of biocatalytic poten- solubilization of hydrophobic compounds, including
tial. The presence of lipase and depolymerase homologs hydrocarbons and synthetic polymers, thereby enhanc-
associated with PHA and PLA degradation is of particu- ing microbial access and enzymatic degradation. In
lar interest, given the increasing industrial relevance of addition to their environmental relevance, rhamnolip-
bioplastics and bio-based plastic and the need for micro- ids are being explored for industrial applications such as
bial systems capable of closing the loop in biopolymer life bio-based detergents, agrochemical formulations, and
cycles. Moreover, the cross-species homology observed biolubricants.
here demonstrates the evolutionary conservation of Biofilm formation plays a synergistic role in plastic deg-
“plastic-active” enzymes and highlights the importance of radation (Fig. 2). P. aeruginosa forms robust biofilms on
domain-level annotation in uncovering hidden biodegra- hydrophobic plastic surfaces, concentrating enzymes and
dation capabilities. Additionally, oxidative enzymes such metabolites that enhance degradation. A recently pub-
as monooxygenases and peroxidases may initiate poly- lished study showed that exposure to PCL significantly
mer oxidation, introducing functional groups that facili- increased biofilm formation, which in turn boosted anti-
tate subsequent enzymatic attack. According to KEGG biotic resistance and plastic breakdown efficiency [50].
annotations [48] for P. aeruginosa PAO1, the genome In the biofilm form, bacteria produce higher amounts
encodes at least 54 monooxygenases, 19 peroxidases, and of rhamnolipids [49], which emulsify hydrophobic sub-
45 dioxygenases, highlighting its oxidative versatility. strates and promote microbial colonization. Clinical iso-
Taken together, these results provide a strong case for lates have demonstrated increased biofilm density and
further experimental validation, including transcriptomic resilience on polymer surfaces, suggesting that degra-
profiling under polymer exposure and heterologous dation intermediates may act as signaling molecules or
expression of candidate genes. They also offer a founda- nutrient sources [25]. This dual functionality, biodegrada-
tion for future synthetic biology approaches aimed at tion coupled with surface colonization, could be strategi-
enhancing plastic degradation through targeted enzyme cally exploited to improve enzyme delivery and retention
and pathway engineering. on plastic waste.
The study by Guzik et al. [51] presents a promising
P. aeruginosa auxiliary pathways in plastic alternative strategy: the chemical pretreatment of PE
degradation via pyrolysis to generate low molecular weight paraf-
P. aeruginosa produces a range of biosurfactants, among fins, which can then serve as substrates for microbial
which rhamnolipids are considered particularly sig- synthesis of biodegradable PHAs. This two-step chemo-
nificant [49]. They reduce surface tension and emul- biotechnological approach circumvents the inherent
sify hydrophobic compounds, improving microbial recalcitrance of high crystallinity, hydrophobic polymers

Fig. 2 PET plastic in a P. aeruginosa biofilm formation assay and SEM micrograph of PET plastic surface after prolonged exposure to biofilm
Aleksic and Milivojevic Biotechnology for the Environment (2025) 2:17 Page 6 of 8

by transforming them into metabolically accessible inter- predisposition for interacting with synthetic polymers,
mediates, thereby efficiently upcycling postconsumer PE particularly those with ester linkages. Despite its poten-
into PHAs. Several studies suggest that Pseudomonas tial, P. aeruginosa’s limited degradation efficiency and
aeruginosa can channel such degradation intermediates pathogenic nature raise concerns regarding its suitabil-
into central metabolic pathways, enabling the biosyn- ity for direct environmental use. The evidence points to
thesis of compounds like PHAs. Notably, P. aeruginosa a bacterium that is biologically equipped to initiate deg-
PAO1 has been shown to accumulate up to ~25% of its radation but not necessarily to complete it in a way that
cell dry weight as PHA when supplied with polyethyl- is scalable or environmentally safe. However, the emer-
ene pyrolysis wax in the presence of rhamnolipids [51]. gence of novel enzymes within clinical isolates and the
Beyond this example, broader strategies for plastic waste potential for synthetic enhancement open new avenues
valorization have been reported, including the use of for biotechnological innovation. Rather than seeing P.
engineered microbial strains, individual bacteria, and aeruginosa as a standalone solution, it is more accurate to
mixed consortia to convert PET monomers, PE pyrolysis consider it a modular component within a broader, engi-
oils, and oxidized plastic fragments into PHAs, thereby neered strategy. Its future utility will depend not only on
establishing diverse and scalable routes for bio-based its biology but on how thoughtfully it is integrated into
plastic production from waste substrates [52, 53]. In systems designed to address the multifaceted challenge of
addition, P. aeruginosa is well known for rhamnolipid plastic pollution.
biosynthesis, and valorization of plastic-derived interme-
diates into biosurfactants such as rhamnolipids has also Abbreviations
PE Polyethylene
been explored [54]. PP Polypropylene
PET Polyethylene terephthalate
PU Polyurethane
Challenges and biosafety risks associate with P. PVC Polyvinyl chloride
aeruginosa PCL Polycaprolactone
P. aeruginosa’s enzymatic activity is highly sensitive to PHB Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate)
PHA Polyhydroxyalkanoates
environmental fluctuations in temperature, pH, and PLA Polylactic acid
nutrient availability, which can limit degradation effi- PBSA Poly(butylene succinate-co-butylene adipate)
ciency. While biofilms facilitate surface attachment, ROS Reactive oxygen species
FTIR Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy
they may also impede nutrient diffusion and slow LCC Leaf-branch compost cutinase
metabolic rates. Most reports describe superficial ero- PAZy Plastics-Active Enzymes Database
sion rather than complete mineralization, often leaving
Acknowledgements
behind microplastic residues [55]. As an opportunistic This work was funded by the European Union’s Horizon Europe call
pathogen commonly linked to hospital-acquired infec- HORIZON-WIDERA-2023-ACCESS-02 under Grant Agreement No 101159570
tions, especially in immunocompromised individuals, (Twinn4MicroUp).
P. aeruginosa deployment in environmental or indus- Authors’ contributions
trial settings requires caution. To address these limita- IA and DM contributed equally to the conceptualization, literature review, and
tions, researchers are exploring non-pathogenic strains writing (original draft and review & editing) of this manuscript. Both authors
read and approved the final version.
or transferring degradative gene clusters into safer hosts
like Pseudomonas putida. Alternatively, enzyme-based Funding
strategies such as purification and immobilization allow This work was funded by the European Union’s Horizon Europe call
HORIZON-WIDERA-2023-ACCESS-02 under Grant Agreement No 101159570
direct application to plastic substrates, avoiding the risks (Twinn4MicroUp).
of live microbial release. Together, these approaches
mark a shift from passive biodegradation to precision- Data availability
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no datasets were generated or
engineered bioremediation, positioning P. aeruginosa as analysed during the current study.
a genetically adaptable platform for next-generation plas-
tic degradation, provided its safety profile is rigorously Declarations
managed.
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable.
Future outlook
While P. aeruginosa possess intriguing possibilities for Consent for publication
Not applicable.
microbial plastic degradation, its role remains complex
and conditional. Its metabolic adaptability and ability to Competing interests
form biofilms on hydrophobic surfaces suggest a natural The authors declare no competing interests.
Aleksic and Milivojevic Biotechnology for the Environment (2025) 2:17 Page 7 of 8

Received: 29 October 2025 Accepted: 3 December 2025 its inter-kingdom transmission and survival. J Med Microbiol.
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