UNIT 2: STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM

Complete Short Notes | Grade 11 Chemistry

1. DALTON'S ATOMIC THEORY (1808)

John Dalton — English scientist. Published 'A New System of Chemical Philosophy.'
• Matter is composed of very small particles called atoms.
• Atom is an indivisible particle — cannot be broken further.
• Atom can neither be created nor destroyed.
• Atoms of a particular element are identical in size, shape and mass.
• Atoms of different elements are different in properties.
• Atoms combine in small whole number ratios.
• All chemical reactions are due to combination or separation of atoms.

2. DISCHARGE TUBE EXPERIMENTS — DISCOVERY OF

ELECTRON
2.1 Cathode Ray Tube (William Crookes / J.J. Thomson)
A glass tube with two metal electrodes (cathode −, anode +) sealed inside. Connected to vacuum
pump. High voltage (5000–10,000 V) applied.

Diagram: Cathode Ray Tube

+------------------------------------------------------+
| Cathode(-) Cathode Rays >>>>>>> Anode(+) |
| [===]------>------>------>------>---[|||] [glow] |
| |
| AIR AT VERY LOW PRESSURE |
+----------------------------+ +-----------------------+
| |
To Vacuum Pump
High Voltage Source

Observations & Steps:

1. Ordinary pressure: gas does NOT conduct electricity.
2. Pressure reduced to 0.1 mm Hg: uniform glow appears.
3. Pressure reduced to 0.01 mm Hg: glow disappears, dark space forms.
4. At very high voltage (~10,000V): faint rays appear from cathode causing fluorescence on glass
wall opposite cathode.
5. Rays named CATHODE RAYS by Goldstein (1886).

2.1.1 Characteristics of Cathode Rays

• Travel in straight lines perpendicular to cathode.
• Cast sharp shadow of opaque objects.
• Produce fluorescence (glow) on striking tube wall.
• Heat metal they fall on.
 • Can rotate a small light pin-wheel (have mass & kinetic energy).
• Produce X-rays when they strike heavy metal anode.
• Can ionize gases.
• Cause chemical change — have reducing effect.
• Penetrate thin metallic sheets (Al, Au).
• Deflected towards positive plate in electric field → NEGATIVELY CHARGED.
• Also deflected by magnetic field.
• Charge-to-mass ratio (e/m) = 1.7588 × 10¹¹ C/kg.
• Charge on electron (e) = 1.6022 × 10⁻¹⁹ C.

2.1.2 Mass of Electron — Calculation

Using e/m ratio and known charge:
e/m = 1.7588 × 10¹¹ C/kg
e = 1.6022 × 10⁻¹⁹ C
m = e ÷ (e/m) = 1.6022×10⁻¹⁹ / 1.7588×10¹¹
m = 9.1069 × 10⁻³¹ kg = 9.1069 × 10⁻²⁸ g

3. CANAL RAYS — DISCOVERY OF PROTON

Eugen Goldstein (1886)
Used discharge tube with HOLES (perforations) in cathode. Observed rays passing through holes
towards anode wall — glowing red. Called canal rays or positive rays.

Diagram: Canal Ray Tube

+-----------------------------------------------------------+
| Perforated <<<< Canal Rays Air at Very Low Pressure |
| Cathode(-) [===|===] <<<<<<<<< Anode(+) [glow] |
| |
+-------------------------------+ +------------------------+
| |
To Vacuum Pump
High Voltage Source

Production of Positive Rays:

High-speed electrons (cathode rays) knock electrons from gas molecules:
M + e⁻ → M⁺ + 2e⁻
M⁺ ions attracted to cathode, pass through perforations → canal rays.

Characteristics of Canal Rays:

• Travel in straight lines perpendicular to anode.
• Have particle nature (can rotate pin-wheel).
• Deflected by electric and magnetic fields in OPPOSITE direction to electrons.
• Attracted towards cathode → positively charged.
• Mass depends on gas used (lightest with hydrogen → proton discovered).
 • e/m ratio varies with gas; maximum with hydrogen.

4. RUTHERFORD'S ATOMIC MODEL (1911)

Gold Foil Experiment — Discovery of Nucleus
Rutherford bombarded a thin gold foil (0.00004 cm) with alpha (α) particles from polonium (radioactive).
Gold foil was surrounded by ZnS fluorescent screen.

Diagram: Rutherford's Gold Foil Experiment

Lead container Thin Gold Foil Fluorescent Screen
(Polonium) (circular/ZnS)
[Pb]----> α α α α α ---->[Au]---->[ ]
Most α pass straight
through (19990) few deflect (small angle)
very few bounce back (2)

Observations:
6. Most α-particles (19990/20000) passed straight through → atom is mostly empty.
7. Some (8) deflected at small angles → positive charge in centre.
8. Very few (2) bounced straight back → nucleus is tiny and very dense.

Main Points of Rutherford's Model:

• Atom has positively charged central portion called NUCLEUS containing protons and neutrons.
• Electrons revolve around nucleus at very high speed (like planets around sun).
• Centripetal force = attractive force of nucleus on electrons.
• Nucleus is very small compared to total size of atom; most volume is empty.
• Atom is electrically neutral: number of electrons = number of protons.
• Nucleus is responsible for mass and energy of atom.

Defects in Rutherford's Model

1. Based on laws of motion valid for neutral bodies, not charged particles.
2. Accelerating electrons should emit energy (Maxwell's theory) and spiral into nucleus —
but they don't.
3. If electrons radiate continuously → continuous spectrum, but LINE spectrum is
observed.
4. No explanation for chemical properties of elements.

5. NEIL BOHR'S ATOMIC THEORY (1913)

Bohr presented theory to overcome Rutherford's defects. Used hydrogen atom as model.

Bohr's Postulates / Assumptions:

 • Electrons revolve in fixed circular paths called shells/orbits. Each has fixed energy. Also called
energy levels.
• Energy of electron is proportional to its distance from nucleus. Farther = higher energy.
• While revolving in fixed orbits, electrons do NOT gain or lose energy (energy of orbit is fixed).
• When electron jumps from higher energy to lower orbit → it RADIATES energy.
• When electron jumps from lower to higher orbit → it ABSORBS energy.
• Electron can reside in any orbit — cannot stay between orbits.
• Angular momentum is quantized:
mvr = nh / 2π
Where: m = mass of electron, v = velocity, r = orbital radius, n = shell number, h = Planck's constant
(6.6262 × 10⁻³⁴ J.s)

Energy Difference Formula:

ΔE = E₂ − E₁ = hν
h = Planck's constant | ν = frequency | E₁ = lower energy | E₂ = higher energy

Shells / Orbits:
Orbits named K, L, M, N… (n = 1, 2, 3, 4…). K-shell (n=1) = lowest energy, nearest to nucleus.

6. FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES OF AN ATOM

Particle Symbo Unit Charge (C) Rel. Mass Mass (kg)
l Charge (amu)
Electron e⁻ −1 1.6022×10⁻¹⁹ 0.000549 9.11×10⁻³¹
Proton p⁺ +1 1.6022×10⁻¹⁹ 1.0073 1.6726×10⁻²⁷
Neutron n⁰ 0 0 1.0087 1.6749×10⁻²⁷

Note: Proton is 1837× heavier than electron. Neutron is 1842× heavier than electron.

7. ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
7.1 Maximum Electrons per Shell
Formula: 2n² where n = shell number
Shell No. Name Formula Max Electrons Sub-shells
(n)
1 K 2(1)² 2 s → 1s²
2 L 2(2)² 8 s and p → 2s², 2p⁶
3 M 2(3)² 18 s, p, d → 3s², 3p⁶, 3d¹⁰
4 N 2(4)² 32 s, p, d, f → 4s², 4p⁶,
4d¹⁰, 4f¹⁴
7.2 Sub-shells (Sub-orbitals)
• s sub-shell: 1 orbital → max 2 electrons (spherical shape)
• p sub-shell: 3 orbitals → max 6 electrons (dumbbell shape, along x, y, z axes)
• d sub-shell: 5 orbitals → max 10 electrons (clover shape)
• f sub-shell: 7 orbitals → max 14 electrons (complex shape)

Energy Order (Aufbau Principle):

1s < 2s < 2p < 3s < 3p < 4s < 3d ...
Electrons fill lowest energy sub-shell first. Note: 4s fills BEFORE 3d (4s has lower energy).

7.3 Electronic Configuration of First 18 Elements

Element Z 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 3d K L M
Hydrogen 1 1s¹ 1
Helium 2 1s² 2
Lithium 3 1s² 2s¹ 2 1
Beryllium 4 1s² 2s² 2 2
Boron 5 1s² 2s² 2p¹ 2 3
Carbon 6 1s² 2s² 2p² 2 4
Nitrogen 7 1s² 2s² 2p³ 2 5
Oxygen 8 1s² 2s² 2p⁴ 2 6
Fluorine 9 1s² 2s² 2p⁵ 2 7
Neon 10 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 2 8
Sodium 11 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s¹ 2 8 1
Magnesium 12 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 2 8 2
Aluminum 13 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p¹ 2 8 3
Silicon 14 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p² 2 8 4
Phosphorous 15 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p³ 2 8 5
Sulphur 16 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁴ 2 8 6
Chlorine 17 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁵ 2 8 7
Argon 18 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 2 8 8

8. ISOTOPES
Definition
Atoms of the SAME element with same atomic number but DIFFERENT mass number.
They have the same number of protons and electrons but DIFFERENT number of
neutrons.
Same chemical properties (same valence electrons) but different physical properties
(density, M.P., B.P.).
Examples of Isotopes:

(i) Hydrogen — 3 Isotopes

Isotope Symbol Protons Neutrons Abundance
Protium (H) ¹₁H 1 0 99.985%
Deuterium (D) ²₁H or D 1 1 0.015%
Tritium (T) ³₁H or T 1 2 Very rare

(ii) Carbon — 3 Isotopes

Isotope Symbol Protons Neutrons Abundance
Carbon-12 ¹²₆C 6 6 98.98%
Carbon-13 ¹³₆C 6 7 1.109%
Carbon-14 ¹⁴₆C 6 8 1 part per trillion

(iii) Chlorine — 2 Isotopes

• Chlorine-35 (³⁵₁₇Cl): 17 protons, 18 neutrons → Abundance 75.53%
• Chlorine-37 (³⁷₁₇Cl): 17 protons, 20 neutrons → Abundance 24.47%

(iv) Uranium — 3 Isotopes

• Uranium-234: 92p, 142n → 0.05%
• Uranium-235: 92p, 143n → 0.75% (used in nuclear reactors)
• Uranium-238: 92p, 146n → 99.245% (most abundant)

Physical Properties of H₂O vs D₂O (Heavy Water)

Molecular mass: H₂O = 18.02 amu | D₂O = 20.03 amu
Density at 0°C: H₂O = 1.000 g/cm³ | D₂O = 1.105 g/cm³
Melting point: H₂O = 0.00°C | D₂O = 3.82°C
Boiling point: H₂O = 100.00°C | D₂O = 101.42°C
 QUICK REVISION SUMMARY — UNIT 2
Key Scientists | Important Formulas | Diagrams | Terms

KEY SCIENTISTS & THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS

Scientist Year Contribution
Dalton 1808 Atomic theory — atom is indivisible solid ball
Goldstein 1886 Canal rays (named cathode rays); perforated cathode
W. Crookes Late 19th Cathode ray tube experiments
J.J. Thomson 1897 Discovered electron; measured e/m ratio
Millikan Oil drop Measured exact charge of electron (e = 1.6022×10⁻¹⁹ C)
Rutherford 1911 Gold foil experiment; discovered nucleus
Neil Bohr 1913 Quantized orbit model; explained line spectrum

IMPORTANT FORMULAS
Formula What It Means
e/m = 1.7588 × 10¹¹ C/kg Charge-to-mass ratio of electron
m = 9.1069 × 10⁻³¹ kg Mass of electron
e = 1.6022 × 10⁻¹⁹ C Charge of electron/proton
2n² (n = shell no.) Max electrons in a shell
mvr = nh/2π Bohr's angular momentum quantization
ΔE = E₂ − E₁ = hν Energy emitted/absorbed during orbit jump
M + e⁻ → M⁺ + 2e⁻ Positive ray production reaction
Mass no. = P + N Protons + Neutrons
Atomic no. = no. of protons (= no. of electrons in neutral atom)

TUBE DIAGRAMS WITH STEPS

A) Cathode Ray Tube — Discovery of Electron
[Cathode−]===Cathode Rays>>>>>>>>> [Anode+] [GREEN GLOW on glass]
Low Pressure Gas inside
________________________________________
| High Voltage (~10,000 V) |
| Vacuum Pump connected |
|_________________________________________|

STEPS: Low P → High V → rays from cathode → glow on opposite wall

Deflected by −ve plate → ELECTRONS discovered

B) Canal Ray Tube — Discovery of Proton

[Perforated Cathode−] <<Canal Rays<<<< [Anode+] [RED GLOW]
||| (holes in cathode)
Canal rays pass through holes towards anode wall
STEPS: Cathode rays knock e⁻ from gas → M⁺ ions formed
M⁺ pass through cathode holes → Canal/positive rays
 Lightest positive ray = proton (using H₂ gas)

C) Rutherford's Gold Foil Experiment — Discovery of Nucleus

[Pb box: Polonium] -α→→→→→ [Gold Foil 0.00004cm] [ZnS Screen]
|
20000 α particles fired:
• 19990 → passed straight (atom is mostly empty)
• 8 → small deflection (positive charge in centre)
• 2 → bounced back (tiny dense positive nucleus)
Conclusion: NUCLEUS = small, dense, positive core of atom

IMPORTANT TERMS GLOSSARY

Term Definition
Atom Smallest indivisible particle of an element
Nucleus Central dense, positively charged core of atom
Electron Negatively charged particle revolving around nucleus
Proton Positively charged particle inside nucleus
Neutron Neutral particle inside nucleus (no charge)
Shell/Orbit Fixed circular path of electron around nucleus
Sub-shell Division of shell into s, p, d, f energy levels
Isotopes Atoms of same element, same p, different neutrons
Mass Number Total no. of protons + neutrons in nucleus
Atomic Number Total no. of protons in nucleus
Aufbau Principle Electrons fill lowest energy sub-shell first
Angular Momentum mvr = nh/2π — quantized in Bohr's model
Cathode Rays Streams of electrons from cathode in discharge tube
Canal Rays Streams of positive ions (through perforated cathode)
Fluorescence Glow produced when cathode rays hit glass/ZnS

Unit 2 | Structure of an Atom | Grade 11 Chemistry | Pages 40–56