Gastrointestinal Agents

Classify Gastrointestinal Agents with examples.

Classification:
1) Gastric acidifiers/Acidifying agent: Dilute Hydrochloric Acid
2) Antacid:
i) Systemic Antacid- Sodium Bicarbonate
ii) Non systemic Antacid- Aluminium Hydroxide, Aluminium Phosphate, Basic
aluminium carbonate , Magnesium carbonate, Magnesium oxide, Magnesium
hydroxide, Magnesium trisilicate, Calcium carbonate, Calcium Phosphate,
Sodium bi-carbonate etc.
3) Protective and Adsorbent: Bismuth Sub carbonate, Bismuth sub nitrate, kaolin,
Milk of bismuth etc.
4) Cathartics –it is also classified as
i) Stimulant
ii) Bulk purgative
iii) Lubricants
iv) Saline cathartics E.g. – Castor oil, Methyl cellulose, liquid paraffin, Mineral
oil, Senna, Magnesium sulphate, Isapgol, etc.

Classify antacids with example.

Classifications:
A) Systemic/ Absorbable antacids- Sodium Bicarbonate
B) Non systemic/ Non absorbable antacids
a) Aluminium containing antacids- Aluminium Hydroxide, Aluminium
Phosphate, Basic aluminium carbonate
b) Calcium containing antacids- Calcium carbonate, Calcium Phosphate
c) Magnesium containing antacids- Magnesium carbonate, Magnesium oxide,
Magnesium hydroxide, Magnesium trisilicate
d) Combination antacids- Aluminium Hydroxide and Magnesium hydroxide,
Aluminium Hydroxide gel and Magnesium trisilicate
 Dental Products

Define and classify Dental products.

Dental products-The products which are used in cleaning, polishing, treating
dental caries, desensitizing, or for any dental infection are called as dental
products. They are also known as dentifrices.
Classification:
1. Anticaries agents: Dental caries is a disease of teeth caused by acids formed
by action of microorganism on carbohydrate and it is characterized by
decalcification of tooth and foul mouth odour. Anticaries agents help in the
prevention of dental caries. Ex. Sodium fluoride, Stannous fluoride
2. Cleaning agents: It helps to remove stains from teeth and gives abrasiveness.
Ex. Calcium phosphate dibasic, sodium metaphosphate
3. Polishing agents: It gives whiteness to the teeth. Ex. Calcium carbonate,
Calcium pyrophosphate
4. Desensitizing agents: It reduces the sensitivity of teeth to hot and cold. Ex.
Zinc chloride.

Drugs Acting On CNS

Anaesthetics
Define & classify general Anaesthetics based on their route of
administration.

Definition: General anaesthetics are the central nervous system depressant drugs
which bring about loss of all modalities of sensations along with a reversible loss
of consciousness.

Classification:
1) Inhalation anaesthetics: which include the liquids of volatile nature and
gaseous substances used by inhalation to produce anaesthesia.

These may be sub-classified as follows:

i. Volatile liquids:
a) Halogenated hydrocarbons: e.g. Chloroform, Halothane, Trichloroethylene,
Ethylchloride
b) Ethers : e.g. Diethyl ether, Vinyl ether

ii. Gases: e.g. Cyclopropane, Nitrous oxide

2) Intraveneous anaesthetics:-
i. Barbiturates: Ultra short acting barbiturates such as Methohexitone,
Thiopentone sodium

ii. Non-barbituates:
a) Eugenol derivatives. e.g. Propanidid
b) Phencyclidine derivatives. e.g Ketamine
c) Steroids. e.g. Althesin
d) Miscellaneous. E.g. Etomidate, Propofol.

Sedative-Hypnotics

Define and classify Sedative-Hypnotics with examples.

Hypnotics: - These are the drugs which depress C.N.S. and produce sleep
resembling natural sleep in normal dose. They are used to overcome insomnia.

Sedatives: - These are the drugs which depress C.N.S. but do not produce sleep
in normal dose but calms the nerves. They reduce excitement of nerves and hence
are used in relief of tension, anxiety and restlessness.

Classification:-

1. Barbiturates – These drugs contains barbituric acid nucleus in the structure

and depending upon duration of action sub classified as follows:
a) Long acting barbiturates – (6 hrs or more) e.g. Barbitone, phenobarbitone
b) Intermediate acting barbiturates – (3 to 6 hrs) e.g. Butobarbitone
c) Short acting barbiturates- (less than 3 hrs) e.g. Cyclobarbitone
d) Ultrashort acting (intravenous) barbiturates – (1/2 to 1 hr) E.g. Methohexitone
sodium, thiopentone sodium

2. Non-barbitgurates –
a) Benzo 1, 4, diazepine derivative e.g. Diazepam, Nitrazepam
b) Piperidin-2, 6 dione deravitive e.g. Glutethimide, Methyprylone
c) Quinazolinones e.g. Methaqulone
d) Alcohol and their derivatives e.g. Triclofos sodium
e) Aldehyde and its derivatives e.g. Paraldehyde
f) Acyclic nitrogen containing compound e.g. Meprobamate
g) Miscellaneous e.g. Diphenhydramine hydrochloride, promethazine
 Antipsychotics

Define and classify antipsychotics with examples.

Antipsychotics are also known as neuroleptics or major tranquilizers, are a class
of medication primarily used to manage psychosis including delusions,
hallucinations, paranoia or disordered thought, principally in schizophrenia and
bipolar disorder.

Classification of antipsychotics:

a) Phenothiazines: Chlorpromazine, Prochlorperazine, Trifluoperazine

b) Butyrophenones: Haloperidol, Droperidol, Trifluperidol
c) Others: Thioxanthenes, Oxypertine, Thyothixene, Loxapine, Clozapine etc.

Anticonvulsants

What is epilepsy? Classify Anticonvulsants

Epilepsy is a disease which arises due to the disorders of control nervous system.
This disease is characterized by somewhat more or less frequent recurrence of
seizures in which there occur convulsions or other abnormal body movements,
which are accompanied by loss or disturbance in consciousness.

Anticonvulsants are classified as:

1) Barbiturates: - Barbitone sodium, Phenobarbitone, Methyl phenobarbitone.

2) Hydantoins: - Phenytoin, Mephenytoin
3) Oxazolidinediones:-Trimethadione, Paramethadione
4) Succinimides: - Ethosuximide, Phensuximide
5) Benzodiazepines: Diazepam, Clonazepam, Lorazepam, Nitrazepam
6) Miscellaneous: - Primidone, Carbamazepine, Valproic acid, Phenacemide,
Pregabalin, Gabapentin

Anti-depressants

Define and classify Anti-depressants with examples.

Antidepressants are drugs which counteract or overcome mental depression.
These drugs are therapeutically useful in a variety of cases pertaining to mentally
ill patients. Mental depression is a phenomenon which may arise in normal
individuals or in mentally ill persons.
Antidepressants drugs may be classified as follows below:-

1. Betaphenylethylamine analogue: which act as monoamino oxidase

inhibitors. eg. Phenelzinesulphate, Isocarboxid, Tranylcypromine.

2. Tricyclic antidepressants:
a. Dibenzazepine class eg. Imipramine
b. Dibenzcycloheptene class eg. Amitriptyline, Nortriptyline

3. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs): Citalopram, Fluoxetine

4. Serotonin and Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs): eg.

Venlafaxine, Desvenlafaxine

5. Atypical Antidepressants: Mitrazapine, Trazodone

Drugs Acting On ANS

Adrenergic drugs (Sympathomimetic agents)

Define and classify Adrenergic drugs (Sympathomimetic agents) giving

suitable example of compounds under each class.

Adrenergic Agents: An adrenergic agent is a drug, or other substance, which has

effects like, or the same as, epinephrine (adrenaline). Thus, it is a kind of
sympathomimetic agent.
Alternatively, it may refer to something which is susceptible to epinephrine, or
similar substances, such as a biological receptor (specifically, the adrenergic
receptors).
Classification of Adrenergic Drugs:
The adrenergic drugs can be classified based on their chemical structure.
1. Catecholamines – Adrenaline, Nor-adrenaline, Isoprenaline
2. Non-Catecholamines – phenylephrine, Salbutamol, Terbutaline, Ephedrine,
Pseudoephedrine.
3. Imidazoline derivatives – Naphazoline, Tetrahydrozolium.
OR
Alternatively, these agents classified as
1. Directly acting (act directly on α or β receptors): Direct stimulation of the
α- and β-adrenergic receptors can produce sympathomimetic effects.
e.g. Epinephrine, Norepinephrine, Dopamine, Salbutamol, Phenylephrine,
Terbutaline, Naphazoline, Tetrahydrozoline.
2. Indirectly acting (act by providing more norepinephrine to act on α or β
receptors): Work by causing the release of dopamine and norepinephrine, along
with (in some cases) blocking the reuptake of these neurotransmitters.
E.g. Amphetamine, hydroxyamphetamine, and propylhexedrine,
pseudoephedrine
3. Mixed acting (act by both mechanisms): e.g. ephedrine, Metaraminol
OR
Many sympathomimetics alternatively, also classified as
1. alpha-adrenoceptor agonists (α-agonists): Phenylephrine
2. beta-adrenoceptor agonists (β-agonists): Terbutaline, Salbutamol
3. Both alpha and beta agonist: Adrenaline, Noradrenaline
OR
Classify Sympathomimetic agents.
Classification:
1) Catecholamines : e.g.: adrenaline, noradrenaline, Isoprenaline, Phenylephrine
2) Non-Catecholamines :
a) Containing phenylethylamine skeleton
i) with phenolic group: [Link], Phenylephrine
ii) without phenolic hydroxy group :e.g:ephedrine.
b) Aliphatic amines : e.g:cyclopentamine
c) Imidazolidine derivatives : eg:naphazoline
OR
Classification:
1) Catecholamines e.g : Adrenaline, Nor-adrenaline, Isoprenaline, Dopamine
2) Non-Catecholamines eg. Phenylephrine, Salbutamol, Terbutaline, Ephedrine,
a. Pseudoephedrine
3) Imidazoline derivatives eg. Naphazoline, Xylometazoline
OR
1) Vasoconstrictors (↑ B. P.): Noradrenaline (Norepinephrine), Dopamine,
Ephedrine
2) Cardiac stimulants: Dopamine, Adrenaline (Epinephrine), Isoprenaline
3) CNS stimulants: Amphetamine
4) Smooth muscle relaxants: Adrenaline, Isoprenaline, Salbutamol, Terbutaline
5) Drugs used in allergic reactions: Ephedrine
6) Local vasoconstrictor/ nasal decongestants: Phenylephrine, Pseudoephedrine,
Naphazoline
7) Anorectics (↓ Appetite): Amphetamine, Phentermine.

Sympatholytic drugs
A sympatholytic is a medication which inhibits the functioning of the sympathetic
nervous system (SNS).
Sympatholytic drugs include several different types of drugs, but all reduce blood
pressure by inhibiting or blocking the sympathetic nervous system. They’re
classified by their site or mechanism of action and include:

1. Central-acting sympathetic nervous system inhibitors (clonidine and

methyldopa)
2. Alpha-adrenergic blockers e.g. Tolazoline, Phentolamine, doxazosin,
phentolamine, prazosin, and terazosin
3. Beta- adrenergic blockers e.g. Propranolol, Atenolol,
3. Mixed alpha- and beta-adrenergic blockers e.g. carvedilol and la-betalol
4. Norepinephrine depletors e.g. guanadrel, guanethidine, and reser-
pine—these are rarely used.

Parasympathomimetic Agents

Define and classify cholinergic drugs. Write the uses of Acetylcholine

Definition:
The agents that mimic the action of acetylcholine or produce the effect of
parasympathetic nerve stimulation are called as cholinergic drugs or
parasympathomimetic agents.

Classification:
1. Choline esters: Acetylcholine, Methacholine, Carbachol
2. Cholinomimetic alkaloids: Muscarine, Pilocarpine, Arecholine
3. Cholinesterase inhibitors (Indirectly acting)
A) Reversible Inhibitors- Physostigmine, Neostigmine, Pyridostigmine
B) Irreversible Inhibitors- Organophosphates (Parathion, Malathion),
Insecticides.

Uses of Acetylcholine:
1. It reduces intraocular pressure in glaucoma
2. In the relief of atony of gut and urinary bladder
 Parasympatholytic agents
Compounds which block the action of acetylcholine, (a neurohormone released
in the parasympathetic system), is a parasympatholytic agent.
Or
A Parasympatholytic agent is a substance or activity that reduces the activity of
the parasympathetic nervous system.
Or Antimuscarinic (or parasympatholytic, anticholinergic, atropine-like) drugs
which antagonize the action of acetylcholine at muscarinic receptors.

Classification of Parasympatholytic agents

Chemical/structural classification (method 1)
a. Amino alcohol esters: e.g Atropine, Hyoscine, homatropine, Propantheline
b. Amino Alkyl ethers: [Link], Chlorphenoxamine
c. Amino alcohols: [Link],Benzhexol, Procyclidine
d. Amino amides: [Link], Isopropamide, Tropicamide
OR
Classification method 2
a. Natural: Solanaceous alkaloids and related compounds: E.g. Atropine,
Hyoscine
b. Semisynthetic Agents: E.g. Homatropine, Ipratropium bromide
c. Synthetic drugs:
i. Anti-secretory drugs: E.g. Clidinium, Diphenanil, Isopropamide
ii. Antispasmodic drugs: E.g. Dicyclomine, glycopyrrolate, Propantheline
iii. Mydriatic and cycloplegic drugs: E.g. Cyclopentolate, Tropicamide
iv. Anti parkinsonism Drugs: E.g. Benztropine, Benzhexol, Procyclidine
 Cardiovascular Agent
Define “Cardiovascular agent”. Classify them based on their therapeutic
uses with examples.

Definition
• Cardiovascular agents include various types of drugs having an action on the
heart or on other parts of the vascular system and they have the ability to alter
cardiovascular function.
OR
• Cardiovascular Agents represents a group of drugs which have direct action on
the heart or other parts of the vascular system so that they modify the total output
to the heart or the distribution of blood to certain parts of the circulatory system.

Classification of cardiovascular agents:-

Different kinds of drugs fall under this category like:

1) Cardiotonics (Positive cardiac inotropic agents):- e.g. Cardiac glycosides
obtained from Digitalis, Stropanthus, squill such as Digoxin, Digitoxin,
Lanatoside C etc.
2) Antiarrhythmic drugs:-
a) Membrane-stabilizing agents (Na channel blockers):- e.g. Quinidine,
Procainamide, Disopyramide, Phenytoin, lignocaine hydrochloride etc.
b) Drug causing β-adrenergic blockade e.g. propranalol and others.
c) Drug that prolong the duration of cardiac action potential [Link]
d) Calcium channel blockers: e.g. verapamil

3) Antianginal agents:-
a) Organic nitrates e.g. Amyl nitrate, Isosorbid nitrate
b) Calcium-channel blockers e.g. Verapamil
c) β-adrenergic blockers e.g. Propranolol

4) Anti-hypertensive:-
a) Centrally acting agents: e.g. α-methyldopa, clonidine
b) Ganglion blockers: e.g. Pentolinium, Mecamylamine
c) Adrenergic neuron blockers e.g. Reserpine, Guanethidine
d) β-adrenergic blockers e.g. Propranalol, Atenolol
e) α-adrenergic blockers e.g. Prazosin, Tolazoline
f) Direct-acting vasodilators e.g. Hydralazine, Minoxidil
g) Calcium channel blockers eg. Verapamil
h) Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACE inhibitors) e.g. Captopril
5) Antihyperlipidemic agents: (lipid lowering agents) e.g Clofibrate, Nicotinic
acid
6) AntithromboticS. eg. Urokinase
7) Anticoagulants eg. Heparin
8) Antiplatelet drugs eg. Aspirin
9) Diuretics (used as adjuvant to antihypertensive therapy) eg. Thiazides,
Furosemide

Antihypertensive Agents

Define and classify antihypertensive agents.

Definition: An agent that reduces elevated blood pressure is called as an

antihypertensive agent. The drugs which are useful for treatment of hypertension
are called as antihypertensive agents.

Classification:
1. ACE inhibitors: Captopril, Enalapril, Ramipril
2. Angiotensin antagonist: Losartan, Candesartan
3. Calcium channel blockers: Verapamil, Nifedipine,
4. Diuretics: a. Thiazides: hydrochlorothiazide b. High ceiling: furosemide c.
Potassium sparing: spironolactone
5. Beta-adrenergic blockers: Propranolol, Metoprolol, Atenolol
6. Alpha-adrenergic blockers: Prazosin, Terazosin
7. Alpha + beta adrenergic blockers: Labetalol, Carvedilol
8. Central sympatholytic: Clonidine, Methyldopa
9. Vasodilators: Hydralazine, Minoxidil sodium
OR
What are Antihypertensive drugs? Classify them with examples.
The drugs which are used to treat hypertension are called as antihypertensive
drugs.
Classification:
1. Drugs affecting the sympathetic tone:
• Drugs that alter central sympathetic activity Clonidine , Methyl Dopa
• Adrenergic neuron blockers : Guanethidine, reserpine
• α- adrenoceptor blocking agents : Prazosin, phentolamine
• β – adrenoceptor blocking agents : Propranolol, atenolol
2. Vasodilators :
• Direct Vasodilators : Hydralazine, Minoxidil
• Calcium channel blockers: Nifedipine, Verapamil
3. Agents acting on renin-angiotensin system:
• Renin inhibitors, Angiotensin antgonists eg: Saralasin
• Angiotension converting enzyme inhibitor : Captopril, Enalapril
4. Diuretics :
• Thiazides : Hydrochlorthiazide
• Loop diuretics : Furosemide
• Potassium Sparing Diuretics : Traiamterene

Diuretics
Define diuretics. Classify them with examples.

Definition: -
Diuretics are the drugs which increase the rate of formation & excretion of urine
through kidneys. They increase the excretion of sodium ion and other ions along
with water by decreasing its reabsorption.

Classification - I

• Water& Osmotic diuretic. E.g. mannitol and urea

• Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors (sulfonamides). E.g. Acetazolamide,
Methazolamide
• Acidifying drugs. E.g. Ammonium chloride.
• Mercurial agents. [Link]
• Thiazides diuretics. E.g .Chlorothiazide, Chlorothalidone, Hydrochlorothiazide
• Miscellaneous
i. Potassium sparing diuretics- [Link], amiloride
ii. Aldosterone antagonist- e.g. Spironolactone
iii. High ceiling diuretics/ Loop diuretics E.g. Furosemide, Ethacrynic acid

OR

Classification- II

1. Weak diuretics
a) Osmotic diuretics- Urea, sodium and potassium salts
b) Non electrolytes- Mannitol, Glucose
c) Carbonic Anhydrase Inhibitors - Acetazolamide, Methazolamide,
d) Xanthine derivatives- Caffeine, Theophylline, Theobromine
2. Moderately potent diuretics: Chlorothiazides, Hydrochlorothiazide,
Benzothiazides
3. Very potent/ loop/ high ceiling diuretics: Frusemide, Ethacrynic acid
4. Potassium sparing diuretics: Triamterene, Amiloride, aldosterone blocking
agents- Spironolactone
5. Antidiuretic hormone: Lithium salts
6. Miscellaneous: Ammonium chloride, Calcium chloride

Hypoglycaemic Agents

Explain Diabetes mellitus. Classify hypoglycaemic agents with examples

Diabetes mellitus:
Metabolic disorders in which there are high blood sugar levels over a prolonged
period.
Diabetes mellitus is characterized by persistent hyperglycemia usually with
glucosuria. The different factors involved in its origin are hereditary,
immunological, age and stress.
Symptoms includes hyperglycemia, glucosuria, ketonemia, ketonuria,
hyperlipidemia, polyuria, polydipsia, Polyphagia, etc.
Diabetes mellitus is divided into following types.
1. Type 1 – Insulin dependent or Juvenile Onset
2. Type 2 – Noninsulin dependent or Maturity onset
3. Gestational Diabetes – Onset of glucose intolerance in women during
pregnancy. Excludes women who were diabetic before pregnancy.
Classification of Hypoglycaemic agents
1. Insulin Preparation: Parenterally
2. Oral hypoglycemic agents –
Orally Insulin –
 Fast acting  Intermediate acting  Long acting Oral hypoglycemic agents
a. Sulfonylureas: Tolbutamide, Chlorpropamide, Tolazamide, Acetohexamide,
Glipizide, Glyburide, Glimepiride, Glicazide
b. Thiazolindiones: Rosiglitazone, Pioglitazone
c. Biguanidines: Metformin, Phenformin
d. Nonsulfonylureas: Metaglinides, Repaglinides, Nateglinides
e. α-glucosidase inhibitor: Acarbose, Miglitol.
f. DPP-4 inhibitors [Link], saxagliptin, vildagliptin, linagliptin, alogliptin
g. SGLT2 inhibitors: dapagliflozin and canagliflozin
h. Cycloset: [Link]

Analgesic and Anti-Inflammatory Agents

Define and classify narcotic analgesic drugs.

Narcotic analgesics are derivatives of opium, semi synthetic or synthetic agents

having potent analgesic & narcotic activity and effective for the treatment of
severe pain. Classification of Narcotic analgesics
Narcotic analgesic are classified as:-

1. Morphine and related compounds (Natural alkaloids of opium) e.g. Morphine,

Codeine.
2. Semi-synthetic derivatives of morphine- Heroin, Brown Sugar
3. Synthetic Agents- Methadone, Pethidine, Dextropropoxyphen hydrochloride

Define and classify NSAIDs.

NSAIDs is an abbreviation for a group of agents called Non-Steroidal Anti-

inflammatory Drugs.

Definition: - These drugs are used to decrease inflammation caused by various

reasons like oedema, erythema, pain and chronic inflammation in rheumatoid
arthritis etc.
Classification:
A. Nonselective COX inhibitors (conventional NSAIDs)
• Salicylates: Aspirin, Diflunisal
• Para Amino Phenol Derivatives- Phenacetin, Paracetamol (Acetaminophen)
• Pyrazolone derivatives: Phenylbutazone, Oxyphenbutazone
• Indole derivatives: Indomethacin, Sulindac
• Propionic acid derivatives: Ibuprofen, Naproxen, Ketoprofen, Flurbiprofen
• Anthranilic acid derivatives: Mephenamic acid
• Aryl‐acetic acid derivatives: Diclofenac.
• Oxicam derivatives: Piroxicam
• Pyrrolo‐pyrrole derivative: Ketorolac
B. Preferential COX‐2 inhibitors: Nimesulide, Meloxicam, Nabumetone
C. Selective COX‐2 inhibitors: Celecoxib, Rofecoxib, Valdecoxib

Anti-Infective Agents
Antifungal Agents

Definition: Antifungal agents are drugs that kill or inactivate fungi and are used
to treat fungal infections.
Classification: The antifungal agents can be divided into the following classes,
based on their chemical structure, mechanism of action, and source:

I. Antibiotics: Amphotericin B, Nystatin, Griseofulvin

II. Azoles (imidazole, triazole derivates)

a. Triazoles—Fluconazole, Itraconzole, Terconazole

b. Imidazoles—Clotrimazole, Ketoconazole, Miconazole, Bifonazole,

Butoconazole, and Zinoconazole

III. Fluorinated pyrimidines: Flucytosine

IV. Chitin synthetase inhibitors: Nikomycin Z

V. Peptides/proteins: Cispentacin

VI. Miscellaneous: Ciclopirox, Tolnaftate, Naftifine, and Terbinafine

Urinary Anti-Infective Agents

Definition: Urinary anti-infective agents are drugs that are used to prevent or treat
urinary tract infections.
Classification of Urinary Tract Anti- Infective Agents
1. Quinolone Derivatives: e.g., Norfloxacin, Ciprofloxacin, Moxifloxacin,
Ofloxacin,
2. Naphthyridine Derivatives: e.g. Nalidixic Acid,
3. Cinnoline Derivatives: e.g. Cinoxacin.
 Antitubercular

Define and classify Antitubercular agents.

Definition: The agents used in treatment of tuberculosis, a disease caused by

Mycobacterium species (M. Tuberculosis, M. bovis or M. africanum)
characterized by formation of nodular bodies or tubercles.

Classification of Antitubercular drugs:

i) p-amino salicylic acid derivative – e.g. PAS
ii) Pyridine derivatives – e.g. Isoniazid, Ethionamide
iii) Pyrazine derivatives- e.g. Pyrazinamide
iv) Ethylene diamine derivatives – e.g. Ethambutol
v) Antibiotics – e.g. Cycloserine, Streptomycin, Rifampicin

OR
i) First line drugs e.g. Isoniazid, Rifampin, Ethambutol, Pyrazinamide,
Streptomycin, Thioacetazone etc.
ii) Second line drugs e.g. Ethionamide, Kanamycin, capreomycin, Cycloserin,
Para amino salicylic acid etc.
iii) Third line drugs e.g. Clarithromycin, Thioacetazone

OR

i) Synthetic anti-tubercular drugs: [Link] Amino Salicylic acid (PAS),

Isoniazide, Ethambutol, Pyrazinamide, Ethionamide
ii) Antibiotics: E.g. Streptomycin, Cycloserine, Rifampin, Clarithromycin

Antiviral Agents
Definition: The drugs which are used in the treatment of viral infections are
called antiviral agents.
Classification:
1. Drugs acting as anti-herpes virus: e.g. Idoxuridine, Acyclovir, Favipiravir,
foscarnet.
2. Drugs acting as anti-influenza virus: e.g. Amantidine
3. Drugs acting as Anti-heptitis Virus: e.g. Ribavirin
4. Drugs acting as Anti-retrovirus: e.g. Zidovudine (AZT)
 Antimalarial

Define antimalarials. Classify them with suitable examples.

Anti-malarial drugs: - The drugs which are used in the treatment of malaria
caused due to Plasmodium Species like Plasmodium Vivax, P. falcifrum,
[Link], P. ovale are called as Anti-malarial drugs.

Classification:
1. Quinine salts e.g. Quinine sulphate, Quinine phosphate, Quinine
dihydrochloride.
2. 8-Aminoquinolines e.g. Pentaquine, Isopentaquine, Pamaquine, Primaquine.
3. 4-Aminoquinolines e.g. Chloroquine , Amodiaquine.
4. 9-Aminoacridines e.g. Quinacrine, Mepacrine.
5. Biguanides e.g. Proguanil, Cycloguanil
6. Diaminopyrimidines. e.g. pyrimethamine.
7. Artemisinin & its derivatives.
8. Miscellaneous: - They are further classified as mentioned below
a) Sulfones & sulfonamides.
b) Antibiotics

Sulphonamides

Define and classify sulphonamides giving suitable examples

Definition: Sulphonamides are the group of synthetic antimicrobial agents that
are structural analogues of para-amino benzoic acid (PABA).
Classification: Any one type of classification can be considered.
Chemical classification
1. N1 - substituted sulphonamides
a. With acyclic substituents: Sulphacetamide, sulphaguanidine
b. With heterocyclic substituents: Sulphadiazine, sulphamethoxazole,
sulphadimethoxine, sulphamethoxypyridazine.
2. N4 - substituted sulphonamides e.g. Sulphasalazine.
3. Sulphonamides with both N1 and N4 substituents
e.g. Phthalylsulphathiazole, succinylsulphathiazole.
OR
On the basis of duration of action
1. Short-acting sulphonamide (plasma half-life less than 10 hours)
a. Poorly absorbed and locally acting - succinyl sulphathiazole, Sulphaguanidine,
phthalylsulphathiazole.
b. absorbed and excreted rapidly - Sulphacetamide.
2. Medium-acting sulphonamides (plasma half-life is between 10-24 hours)
Sulphamethoxazole, sulphadiazine.
3. Long-acting sulphonamides (plasma half-life is more than 24 hours):
Sulphadimethoxine, sulphamethoxypyridazine.
4. Ultra-long-actingsulphonamides - Sulphamethoxine, Sulphamethoxypyrazine

Depending upon their therapeutic uses

1. Sulphonamides are used for systemic infections:
a. Urinary tract infections: Sulphamethoxazole, Sulphacetamide.
b. Respiratory tract infections: Cotrimoxazole, Sulphadiazine.
c. Meningeal infections: Sulphadiazine.
2. Sulphonamides are used for local infections:
a. Intestinal infections: Sulphaguanidine, Phthalylsulphathiazole, Succinyl
sulphathiazole.
b. Ophthalmic infections: Sulphacetamide.
c. Burn therapy: Mefenide, Silver sulphadiazine.

Antibiotics

Define and classify Antibiotics giving suitable example of compounds under

each class.
Antibiotics: Antibiotics are chemical substances produced by certain species of
microorganisms and their synthetic analogues having the property of inhibiting
the growth of or destroying other microorganisms in high dilutions or low
concentration.
OR
Chemical compounds derived from living organism and capable to inhibit the
growth of micro-organism or kill the micro-organism.
OR
The substances which produced by micro-organism and have capacity to inhibit
the growth or destroy the microorganism.
Chemical classification of antibiotics
1. Beta-lactam antibiotics:
a. Penicillin - Phenoxymethylpenicillin, flucloxacillin, amoxicillin.
b. Cephalosporins - Cefaclor, cefadroxil and cephalexin.
2. Tetracyclines: Doxycycline and Minocycline.
3. Aminoglycosides: Streptomycin
4. Macrolides: Erythromycin, azithromycin
5. Polypeptides: Bacitracin,
6. Polyenes Antifungal antibiotics: Amphotericin, Nystatin and Candicidin
7. Ansamycins: Rifamycins (Rifampin, Rifampicin, Rifabutin)
8. Lincomycins: Clindamycin.
9. Quinolones: Ciprofloxacin, levofloxacin and norfloxacin
10. Antibiotics derived from single aminoacid: s-Cycloserine & Chloramphenicol
11. Miscellaneous: s-fusidic acid, griseofulvin, novobiocin etc

Classification of antibiotics according to Mode of Action:

1. Inhibitors of bacterial cell wall synthesis: Penicillin, Cephelosporins

2. Inhibitors of Protein synthesis: Tetracyclines, Chloramphenicol, Macrolide,
Aminoglycoside
3. Inhibitors of Nucleic acids metabolism (DNA/RNA): Griseofulvin,
Actinomycin
Classification of antibiotics depending on spectrum of activity
1. Narrow Spectrum: Bacitracin
2. Broad Spectrum: Cephalosporin
 Antineoplastic/ Anti-cancer drugs

Define ‘Neoplasm’ and classify antineoplastic agents with example.

Neoplasm is the medical term for Cancer or tumor which means a relatively
autonomous growth of tissues. The term neoplasm refers to an abnormal growth
of tissue caused by the rapid division of cells that have undergone some form of
mutation. A neoplasm is a type of abnormal and excessive growth of tissue. This
abnormal growth usually forms a mass, when it may be called a tumor.
Classification of antineoplastic agents Antineoplastic drugs are medications used
to treat cancer.

Classification:
1. Alkylating Agents.
a. Nitrogen mustard drugs: Mustine, Chormabucil, cyclophosphamide
b. Aziridines: Thiotepa
c. Alkyl sulphonate: Busulphan
d. Nitrosourea group compound: Lomustine
2. Antimetabolites: Methotrexate, Mercaptopurine, Azathioprine, Fluorouracil
3. Antibiotics: Actinomycin, Daunorubicin, Doxorubicin
4. Plant Products: Sulphates of vinblastine and vincristine.
5. Hormones and related drugs: Glucocorticoids, Tamoxifen
6. Miscellaneous agents: Hydroxyurea, Cisplatin

What is co-trimoxazole? Explain mechanism of action and give two brand

names of Cotrimoxazole.
 Cotrimoxazole is the combination of two drugs i.e. Sulphamethoxazole and
Trimethoprim in a proportion of 5:1.
 Mechanism of action: Sulphonamides block the biosynthesis of folic acid
from p-amino benzoic acid. Trimethoprim inhibits the enzyme folate
reductase and blocks the conversion of folic acid to tetrahydofolic acid
(THF). THF is the form required for coenzyme synthesis. Combination of
Sulphamethoxazole and Trimethoprim by synergism produces bactericidal
effect.
 Brand names: Septran, bactrim, ciplin, uritrim, septabid, sepmax