INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Table of Contents

1 COMPUTER BASICS.........................................................................7
1.1 Aim...........................................................................................................................................7

1.2 Objectives................................................................................................................................7

1.3 Definitions...............................................................................................................................7

1.4 History of Computing.............................................................................................................8

1.4.1 General-purpose Computers...........................................................................................9

1.5 Classes of computers............................................................................................................11

1.5.1 Microcomputers (Personal computers).........................................................................11
1.5.2 Minicomputers (Midrange computers).........................................................................11
1.5.3 Mainframe Computers..................................................................................................12
1.5.4 Supercomputer and Mainframe.....................................................................................12
1.5.5 Workstation...................................................................................................................13
1.5.6 Personal computer.........................................................................................................13
1.5.7 Personal Computer Types.............................................................................................15

1.6 Computer sizes and power...................................................................................................18

1.6.1 Stored-program architecture.........................................................................................18

1.7 Uses of Computers................................................................................................................19

1.8 Computer as a system..........................................................................................................21

1.8.1 Input units.....................................................................................................................22
1.8.2 The Central Processing Unit (CPU)..............................................................................22

1.9 Data Representation.............................................................................................................28

1.9.1 Decimal Number System..............................................................................................28
1.9.2 Binary Number System.................................................................................................28
1.9.3 Octal Number System...................................................................................................28
1.9.4 Hexadecimal Number System.......................................................................................28
1.9.5 Converting Between Number Bases.............................................................................29

2 COMPUTER HARDWARE................................................................44
2.1 Aim.........................................................................................................................................44

2.2 Objectives..............................................................................................................................44

2.3 Definition...............................................................................................................................44

2.4 Input hardware:....................................................................................................................45

2.4.1 Keyboard.......................................................................................................................45
2.4.2 Mouse............................................................................................................................46
2.4.3 Voice recognition hardware..........................................................................................47

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 2.4.4 Scanner..........................................................................................................................47
2.4.5 Digital Camera..............................................................................................................48

2.5 Connecting Hardware to the computer:.............................................................................50

2.5.1 Port................................................................................................................................50
2.5.2 Data storage..................................................................................................................50

2.6 Output Units..........................................................................................................................54

2.6.1 Visual Output................................................................................................................54
2.6.2 LCD...............................................................................................................................55
2.6.3 CRT...............................................................................................................................57
2.6.4 Projector........................................................................................................................59
2.6.5 Audio Output Devices...................................................................................................60
2.6.6 Hardcopy Output...........................................................................................................61
2.6.7 Non impact printer........................................................................................................62

2.7 Storage...................................................................................................................................63
2.7.1 DVD (Digital Versatile Disk).......................................................................................64
2.7.2 Hard disk drive..............................................................................................................64

3 COMPUTER SOFTWARE................................................................70
3.1 Aim.........................................................................................................................................70

3.2 Objectives..............................................................................................................................70

3.3 Definition...............................................................................................................................70

3.4 Software Classes...................................................................................................................71

3.4.1 System Software...........................................................................................................71
3.4.2 Application software.....................................................................................................72
3.4.3 Types of Software.........................................................................................................72
3.4.4 Acquiring Software.......................................................................................................73
3.4.5 Application software examples.....................................................................................73
3.4.6 Software for Business...................................................................................................79
3.4.7 Software Ethics.............................................................................................................80

4 DATABASES....................................................................................84
4.1 Aim.........................................................................................................................................84

4.2 Objectives..............................................................................................................................84

4.3 Definition...............................................................................................................................84
4.3.1 What is data?.................................................................................................................85
4.3.2 What is information?.....................................................................................................85
4.3.3 Why do we need a database?........................................................................................85

4.4 Database Models...................................................................................................................86

4.4.1 The Hierarchical Model................................................................................................86
4.4.2 The RELATIONAL Model...........................................................................................88
4.4.3 The Object Oriented model...........................................................................................90
4.4.4 Network Model.............................................................................................................92

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4.5 Database vs. File System......................................................................................................93

5 TELECOMMUNICATIONS................................................................99
5.1 Aim.........................................................................................................................................99

5.2 Objectives..............................................................................................................................99

5.3 Definition...............................................................................................................................99

5.4 Networks..............................................................................................................................100
5.4.1 Local Area Network (LAN)........................................................................................100
5.4.2 WANs.........................................................................................................................101

5.5 Network Topologies............................................................................................................101

5.5.1 Bus Topology..............................................................................................................101
5.5.2 Ring Topology............................................................................................................102
5.5.3 Star Topology..............................................................................................................103
5.5.4 Hybrid network...........................................................................................................104

5.6 Basic transmission medium concepts................................................................................105

5.6.1 Medium examples by type..........................................................................................105

5.7 Network Devices.................................................................................................................111

5.7.1 Hubs............................................................................................................................111
5.7.2 Gateway......................................................................................................................112
5.7.3 Router..........................................................................................................................113
5.7.4 Bridge..........................................................................................................................113
5.7.5 Switch.........................................................................................................................113

5.8 Data Communication Technologies..................................................................................114

5.8.1 Circuit Switching Technologies..................................................................................114
5.8.2 Packet Switching Technologies..................................................................................114
5.8.3 Frame Relay Techniques.............................................................................................115
5.8.4 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)........................................................................115
5.8.5 ISDN and Broadband ISDN Technology...................................................................115

5.9 Ethernet...............................................................................................................................116

5.10 Understanding Network Protocols...............................................................................116

5.10.1 ISO/OSI Reference Model.....................................................................................117
5.10.2 What is TCP/IP?.....................................................................................................117

5.11 The Internet....................................................................................................................119

5.11.1 Information Retrieval on the Internet.....................................................................121
5.11.2 The World Wide Web............................................................................................122
5.11.3 Intranets and Extranets...........................................................................................124
5.11.4 Advantages of internet...........................................................................................126

6 COMPUTER VIRUSES...................................................................132
6.1 Aim.......................................................................................................................................132

6.2 Objectives............................................................................................................................132

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6.3 Computer Viruses...............................................................................................................132
6.3.1 Five recognized types of viruses.................................................................................134
6.3.2 What is a Trojan horse?..............................................................................................135
6.3.3 What is a worm?.........................................................................................................135
6.3.4 What is a virus hoax?..................................................................................................136
6.3.5 Symptoms of a Computer Virus.................................................................................136
6.3.6 Symptoms that may be the result of ordinary Windows functions.............................138
6.3.7 What Viruses Don't Do!..............................................................................................139
6.3.8 How do Viruses Spread?.............................................................................................139
6.3.9 How to Prevent a Virus Invasion!...............................................................................140
6.3.10 How to remove a computer virus...........................................................................140

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 List of Figures

Figure 1-1 Computer System.................................................................................22

Figure 2-1 Computer Hardware.............................................................................45
Figure 2-2 Computer hardware..............................................................................46
Figure 2-3 Keyboard..............................................................................................47
Figure 2-4 Mouse...................................................................................................47
Figure 2-5 Microphone..........................................................................................48
Figure 2-6 Scanner.................................................................................................49
Figure 2-7 Camera.................................................................................................50
Figure 2-8 Canon PowerShop A95 Camera..........................................................50
Figure 2-9 Floppy Diskette....................................................................................53
Figure 2-10 CD......................................................................................................53
Figure 2-11 LCD Monitor.....................................................................................56
Figure 2-12 CRT Monitor......................................................................................59
Figure 2-13 Projector.............................................................................................60
Figure 2-14 Multimedia Speaker...........................................................................62
Figure 2-15 Printer.................................................................................................63
Figure 2-16 Printer.................................................................................................64
Figure 2-17 Disk Drive..........................................................................................66
Figure 2-18 DVD...................................................................................................66
Figure 2-19 Hard Disk Drive.................................................................................67
Figure 2-20 Computer Hardware...........................................................................69
Figure 3-1 Microsoft Word....................................................................................75
Figure 3-2 Microsoft Publisher..............................................................................76
Figure 3-3 Microsoft Excel....................................................................................77
Figure 3-4 Microsoft Access.................................................................................78
Figure 3-5 Microsoft PowerPoint..........................................................................79
Figure 3-6 Clip Art................................................................................................80
Figure 4-1 Hierarchical Database..........................................................................88
Figure 4-2 Hierarchical model...............................................................................89
Figure 4-3 Relational Database.............................................................................91
Figure 5-1 Network..............................................................................................101
Figure 5-2 Bus Topology....................................................................................102
Figure 5-3 Ring Topology...................................................................................103
Figure 5-4 Star Topology.....................................................................................104
Figure 5-5 Hybrid Network.................................................................................105
Figure 5-6 Coaxial Cable.....................................................................................106
Figure 5-7 Twisted Pair Cable.............................................................................107
Figure 5-8 Optic Fibre Cable...............................................................................108
Figure 5-9 Space Satellite....................................................................................110
Figure 5-10 Wireless Devices.............................................................................111
Figure 5-11 The OSI Model................................................................................120

List of Tables

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Table 1-1 Number Conversion..............................................................................30
Table 5-1 Twisted Pair Cables.............................................................................106

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 UNIT 1

COMPUTER BASICS

1 COMPUTER BASICS

1.1 Aim

The learner must understand what a computer is, its history and all the categories
in which computers are classified. The learner must also know the basic
terminology in computers

1.2 Objectives

After the end of this chapter, the reader must be able to:
 Define what a computer is.
 Describe the history of Computing.
 Identify the categories of computers.
 Identify and describe the major components of a Von Neumann Computer
Architecture.
 Identify and describe the components of a computer system.
 Identify the uses of a computer system.
 Identify and describe the major number system used in computer systems
 Be able to convert numbers from one base to another.

1.3 Definitions

A computer can be defined as:

 A programmable machine that receives input, stores and manipulates data,
and provides output in a useful format
 A machine that can be programmed to manipulate symbols. Computers
can perform complex and repetitive procedures quickly, precisely and
reliably and can quickly store and retrieve large amounts of data
 A device that computes, especially a programmable electronic machine
that performs high-speed mathematical or logical operations or that
assembles, stores, correlates, or otherwise processes information

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  An electronic device that stores and manipulates information. Unlike a
calculator, it is able to store a program and retrieve information from its
memory. Most computers today are digital, which means they perform
operations with quantities represented electronically as digits.

The principal characteristics of a basic computer system are:

 It responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner.

 It can execute a prerecorded list of instructions (a program).
 It can quickly store and retrieve large amounts of data.

1.4 History of Computing

The first use of the word "computer" was recorded in 1613, referring to a person
who carried out calculations, or computations, and the word continued to be used
in that sense until the middle of the 20th century when began to refer to
programmable devices.

The history of the modern computer begins with two separate technologies
(automated calculation and programmability). An example of these early
mechanical calculating devices includes the abacus, the slide rule and arguably
the astrolabe and the Antikythera mechanism( an ancient astronomical computer
built by the Greeks around 80 BC) The Greek mathematician Hero of Alexandria
(c. 10–70 AD) built a mechanical theater which performed a play lasting
10 minutes and was operated by a complex system of ropes and drums that might
be considered to be a means of deciding which parts of the mechanism performed
which actions and when. This is the essence of programmability.

The “castle clock” is the earliest programmable computer. It was an astronomical

clock invented by Al-Jazari in 1206 to display the zodiac, solar and lunar orbits.
The Wilhelm Schickard's 1623 device was the first of a number of mechanical
calculators constructed by European engineers, but none fit the modern definition
of a computer, because they could not be programmed.

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1.4.1 General-purpose Computers

It was the fusion of automatic calculation with programmability that produced the
first recognizable computers. Charles Babbage (1837) was the first to
conceptualize and design a fully programmable mechanical computer (known as
the analytical engine). Due to limited finances and Babbage's inability to resist
tinkering with the design, the device was never completed.

Herman Hollerith invented the recording of data on a machine readable medium

in 1880s. Prior uses of machine readable media, above, had been for control, not
data. After some initial trials with paper tape, he settled on punched cards which
he processed with the tabulator, and the keypunch machines he invented. These
three inventions were the foundation of the modern information processing
industry. Large-scale automated data processing of punched cards was performed
for the 1890 United States Census by Hollerith's company, which later became the
core of IBM. By the end of the 19th century a number of technologies that would
later prove useful in the realization of practical computers had begun to appear:
the punched card, Boolean algebra, the vacuum tube (thermionic valve) and the
teleprinter.

In 1936, Allan Turing (the father of modern computer science) invented the
Turing machine. He provided an influential formalisation of the concept of the
algorithm and computation with the Turing machine, providing a blueprint for the
electronic digital computer. "The fact remains that everyone who taps at a
keyboard, opening a spreadsheet or a word-processing program, is working on an
incarnation of a Turing machine". In 1945, Konrad Zuse invented the first
program-controlled computer. The first computer based on magnetic storage later
in 1955.

While working at Bell Labs in November 1937, George Stibitz invented and built
a relay-based calculator he dubbed the "Model K" (for "kitchen table", on which
he had assembled it). It was the modern digital computer, and also the first to use
binary circuits to perform an arithmetic operation. Complex arithmetic and

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programmability where later factored in to improve performance and hence
invention of later models.

The use of digital electronics (largely invented by Claude Shannon in 1937) and
more flexible programmability were vitally important steps, but defining one
point along this road as "the first digital electronic computer" is difficult. Notable
achievements include.

 Konrad Zuse's electromechanical "Z machines". The Z3 (1941) was the

first working machine featuring binary arithmetic, including floating point
arithmetic and a measure of programmability. In 1998 the Z3 was proved
to be Turing complete, therefore being the world's first operational
computer.
 The non-programmable Atanasoff–Berry Computer (1941) which used
vacuum tube based computation, binary numbers, and regenerative
capacitor memory. The use of regenerative memory allowed it to be much
more compact than its peers (being approximately the size of a large desk
or workbench), since intermediate results could be stored and then fed
back into the same set of computation elements.
 The secret British Colossus computers (1943), which had limited
programmability but demonstrated that a device using thousands of tubes,
could be reasonably reliable and electronically reprogrammable. It was
used for breaking German wartime codes.
 The Harvard Mark I (1944), a large-scale electromechanical computer
with limited programmability.
 The U.S. Army's Ballistic Research Laboratory ENIAC (1946), which
used decimal arithmetic and is sometimes called the first general purpose
electronic computer (since Konrad Zuse's Z3 of 1941 used electromagnets
instead of electronics). Initially, however, ENIAC had an inflexible
architecture which essentially required rewiring to change its
programming.

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1.5 Classes of computers

1.5.1 Microcomputers (Personal computers)

Microcomputers are the most common type of computers in existence today,

whether at work in school or on the desk at home. The term "microcomputer" was
introduced with the advent of single chip microprocessors. The term
"microcomputer" itself, is now practically an anachronism.

These computers include:

 Desktop computers
 Laptop and notebook computers
 Tablet PC
 Palmtop computers
 Personal digital assistants (more commonly known as PDA's)
 Programmable calculator

1.5.2 Minicomputers (Midrange computers)

A minicomputer (colloquially, mini) is a class of multi-user computers that lies

in the middle range of the computing spectrum, in between the largest multi-user
systems (mainframe computers) and the smallest single-user systems
(microcomputers or personal computers). The contemporary term for this class of
system is midrange computer, such as the higher-end SPARC, POWER and
Itanium -based systems from Sun Microsystems, IBM and Hewlett-Packard. In
the past decade, the distinction between large minicomputers and small
mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between small
minicomputers and workstations. But in general, a minicomputer is a
multiprocessing system capable of supporting from up to 200 users
simultaneously.

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1.5.3 Mainframe Computers

The term mainframe computer was created to distinguish the traditional, large,
institutional computer intended to service multiple users from the smaller, single
user machines. These computers are capable of handling and processing very
large amounts of data quickly. Mainframe computers are used in large institutions
such as government, banks and large corporations. These institutions were early
adopters of computer use, long before personal computers were available to
individuals. "Mainframe" often refers to computers compatible with the computer
architectures established in the 1960s. Thus, the origin of the architecture also
affects the classification, not just processing power. The chief difference between
a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer channels all its power
into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a mainframe uses its
power to execute many programs concurrently.

1.5.4 Supercomputer and Mainframe

Supercomputer is a broad term for one of the fastest computers currently

available. Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized
applications that require immense amounts of mathematical calculations (number
crunching). For example, weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other
uses of supercomputers scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic
calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological
data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting). Perhaps the best known supercomputer
manufacturer is Cray Research.

Mainframe was a term originally referring to the cabinet containing the central
processor unit or "main frame" of a room-filling Stone Age batch machine. After
the emergence of smaller "minicomputer" designs in the early 1970s, the
traditional big iron machines were described as "mainframe computers" and
eventually just as mainframes. Nowadays a Mainframe is a very large and
expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users

12
simultaneously. The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe
is that a supercomputer channels all its power into executing a few programs as
fast as possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power to execute many programs
concurrently. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers
because they support more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can
execute a single program faster than a mainframe. The distinction between small
mainframes and minicomputers is vague, depending really on how the
manufacturer wants to market its machines.

1.5.5 Workstation

It is a type of computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop

publishing, software development, and other types of applications that require a
moderate amount of computing power and relatively high quality graphics
capabilities. Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics
screen, at large amount of RAM, built-in network support, and a graphical user
interface. Most workstations also have a mass storage device such as a disk drive,
but a special type of workstation, called a diskless workstation, comes without a
disk drive. The most common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and
Windows NT. Like personal computers, most workstations are single-user
computers. However, workstations are typically linked together to form a local-
area network, although they can also be used as stand-alone systems.

1.5.6 Personal computer

It can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an

individual user. In price, personal computers range anywhere from a few hundred
pounds to over five thousand pounds. All are based on the microprocessor
technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip.
Businesses use personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop
publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database management applications.

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At home, the most popular use for personal computers is for playing games and
recently for surfing the Internet.

Personal computers first appeared in the late 1970s. One of the first and most
popular personal computers was the Apple II, introduced in 1977 by Apple
Computer. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, new models and competing
operating systems seemed to appear daily. Then, in 1981, IBM entered the fray
with its first personal computer, known as the IBM PC. The IBM PC quickly
became the personal computer of choice, and most other personal computer
manufacturers fell by the wayside. P.C. is short for personal computer or IBM PC.
One of the few companies to survive IBM's onslaught was Apple Computer,
which remains a major player in the personal computer marketplace. Other
companies adjusted to IBM's dominance by building IBM clones, computers that
were internally almost the same as the IBM PC, but that cost less. Because IBM
clones used the same microprocessors as IBM PCs, they were capable of running
the same software. Over the years, IBM has lost much of its influence in directing
the evolution of PCs. Therefore after the release of the first PC by IBM the term
PC increasingly came to mean IBM or IBM-compatible personal computers, to
the exclusion of other types of personal computers, such as Macintoshes. In recent
years, the term PC has become more and more difficult to pin down. In general,
though, it applies to any personal computer based on an Intel microprocessor, or
on an Intel-compatible microprocessor. For nearly every other component,
including the operating system, there are several options, all of which fall under
the rubric of PC

Today, the world of personal computers is basically divided between Apple

Macintoshes and PCs. The principal characteristics of personal computers are that
they are single-user systems and are based on microprocessors. However,
although personal computers are designed as single-user systems, it is common to
link them together to form a network. In terms of power, there is great variety. At
the high end, the distinction between personal computers and workstations has
faded. High-end models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same computing

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power and graphics capability as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems,
Hewlett-Packard, and DEC.

1.5.7 Personal Computer Types

Actual personal computers can be generally classified by size and chassis / case.
The chassis or case is the metal frame that serves as the structural support for
electronic components. Every computer system requires at least one chassis to
house the circuit boards and wiring. The chassis also contains slots for expansion
boards. If you want to insert more boards than there are slots, you will need an
expansion chassis, which provides additional slots. There are two basic flavors of
chassis designs–desktop models and tower models–but there are many variations
on these two basic types. Portable computers include notebook and sub notebook
computers, hand-held computers, palmtops, and PDAs.

[Link] Tower model

The term refers to a computer in which the power supply, motherboard, and mass
storage devices are stacked on top of each other in a cabinet. This is in contrast to
desktop models, in which these components are housed in a more compact box.
The main advantage of tower models is that there are fewer space constraints,
which makes installation of additional storage devices easier.

[Link] Desktop model

A computer designed to fit comfortably on top of a desk, typically with the

monitor sitting on top of the computer. Desktop model computers are broad and
low, whereas tower model computers are narrow and tall. Because of their shape,
desktop model computers are generally limited to three internal mass storage
devices. Desktop models designed to be very small are sometimes referred to as
slim line models.

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[Link] Notebook computer

Notebook computers typically weigh less than 6 pounds and are small enough to
fit easily in a briefcase. Aside from size, the principal difference between a
notebook computer and a personal computer is the display screen. Notebook
computers use a variety of techniques, known as flat-panel technologies, to
produce a lightweight and non-bulky display screen. The quality of notebook
display screens varies considerably. In terms of computing power, modern
notebook computers are nearly equivalent to personal computers. They have the
same CPUs, memory capacity, and disk drives. However, all this power in a small
package is expensive. Notebook computers cost about twice as much as
equivalent regular-sized computers. Notebook computers come with battery packs
that enable you to run them without plugging them in. However, the batteries
need to be recharged every few hours.

[Link] Laptop computer

A laptop computer is a small and portable computer which is small enough that it
can sit on your lap. Nowadays, laptop computers are more frequently called
notebook computers.

[Link] Sub notebook computer

A portable computer that is slightly lighter and smaller than a full-sized notebook
computer. Typically, sub notebook computers have a smaller keyboard and
screen, but are otherwise equivalent to notebook computers.

[Link] Hand-held computer

A portable computer that is small enough to be held in one’s hand. Although

extremely convenient to carry, handheld computers have not replaced notebook
computers because of their small keyboards and screens. The most popular hand-
held computers are those that are specifically designed to provide PIM (personal

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information manager) functions, such as a calendar and address book. Some
manufacturers are trying to solve the small keyboard problem by replacing the
keyboard with an electronic pen. However, these pen-based devices rely on
handwriting recognition technologies, which are still in their infancy. Hand-held
computers are also called PDAs, palmtops and pocket computers.

[Link] Palmtop

A Palmtop is a small computer that literally fits in your palm. Compared to full-
size computers, palmtops are severely limited, but they are practical for certain
functions such as phone books and calendars. Palmtops that use a pen rather than
a keyboard for input are often called hand-held computers or PDAs. Because of
their small size, most palmtop computers do not include disk drives. However,
many contain PCMCIA slots in which you can insert disk drives, modems,
memory, and other devices. Palmtops are also called PDAs, hand-held computers
and pocket computers.

[Link] PDA (Portable Digital Adaptor)

PDA is short for personal digital assistant, a handheld device that combines
computing, telephone/fax, and networking features. A typical PDA can function
as a cellular phone, fax sender, and personal organizer. Unlike portable
computers, most PDAs are pen-based, using a stylus rather than a keyboard for
input. This means that they also incorporate handwriting recognition features.
Some PDAs can also react to voice input by using voice recognition technologies.
The field of PDA was pioneered by Apple Computer, which introduced the
Newton MessagePad in 1993. Shortly thereafter, several other manufacturers
offered similar products. To date, PDAs have had only modest success in the
marketplace, due to their high price tags and limited applications. However, many
experts believe that PDAs will eventually become common gadgets.

PDAs are also called palmtops, hand-held computers and pocket computers.

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1.6 Computer sizes and power

Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows, though there
is considerable overlap:

 Personal computer: A small, single-user computer based on a

microprocessor.
 Workstation: A powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like a
personal computer, but it has a more
 Powerful microprocessor and, in general, a higher-quality monitor.
 Minicomputer: A multi-user computer capable of supporting up to
hundreds of users simultaneously.
 Mainframe: A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many
hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.
 Supercomputer: An extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of
millions of instructions per second.

1.6.1 Stored-program architecture

John von Neumann first formally described the design of stored program
architecture in the paper First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC which was
distributed in 1945. Several developers of ENIAC, recognizing its flaws, came up
with a far more flexible and elegant design, which came to be known as the
"stored program architecture" or von Neumann architecture. The first working
prototype to be demonstrated as a stored program computer was the Manchester
Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM or "Baby") in 1948. The Electronic
Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC), completed a year after the SSEM
at Cambridge University, was the first practical, non-experimental
implementation of the stored program design and was put to use immediately for
research work at the university. Shortly thereafter, the machine originally
described by von Neumann's paper—EDVAC—was completed but did not see
full-time use for an additional two years.

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1.7 Uses of Computers

There are several uses of computers, these includes:

 Word Processing - Word Processing software automatically corrects

spelling and grammar mistakes. If the content of a document repeats you
don’t have to type it each time. You can use the copy and paste features.
You can printout documents and make several copies. It is easier to read a
word-processed document than a handwritten one. You can add images to
your document.
 Internet - It is a network of almost all the computers in the world. You
can browse through much more information than you could do in a library.
That is because computers can store enormous amounts of information.
You also have very fast and convenient access to information. Through E-
Mail you can communicate with a person sitting thousands of miles away
in seconds. There is chat software that enables one to chat with another
person on a real-time basis. Video conferencing tools are becoming
readily available to the common man.
 Digital video or audio composition – Audio or video composition and
editing have been made much easier by computers. It no longer costs
thousands of dollars of equipment to compose music or make a film.
Graphics engineers can use computers to generate short or full-length
films or even to create three-dimensional models. Anybody owning a
computer can now enter the field of media production. Special effects in
science fiction and action movies are created using computers.
 Desktop publishing - With desktop publishing, you can create page
layouts for entire books on your personal computer.
 Computers in Medicine - You can diagnose diseases. You can learn the
cures. Software is used in magnetic resonance imaging to examine the
internal organs of the human body. Software is used for performing
surgery. Computers are used to store patient data.

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 Mathematical Calculations - Thanks to computers, which have
computing speeds of over a million calculations per second we can
perform the biggest of mathematical calculations.
 Banks - All financial transactions are done by computer software. They
provide security, speed and convenience.
 Travel - One can book air tickets or railway tickets and make hotel
reservations online.
 Telecommunications - Software is widely used here. Also all mobile
phones have software embedded in them.
 Defense - There is software embedded in almost every weapon. Software
is used for controlling the flight and targeting in ballistic missiles.
Software is used to control access to atomic bombs.
 E-Learning – Instead of a book it is easier to learn from an E-learning
software.
 Gambling-You can gamble online instead of going to a casino.
 Examinations-You can give online exams and get instant results. You can
check your examination results online.
 Computers in Business - Shops and supermarkets use software, which
calculate the bills. Taxes can be calculated and paid online. Accounting is
done using computers. One can predict future trends of business using
artificial intelligence software. Software is used in major stock markets.
One can do trading online. There are fully automated factories running on
software.
 Certificates - Different types of certificates can be generated. It is very
easy to create and change layouts.
 ATM machines - The computer software authenticates the user and
dispenses cash.
 Marriage - There are matrimonial sites through which one can search for
a suitable groom or bride.
 News-There are many websites through which you can read the latest or
old news.

20
  Classmates-There are many alumni websites through which you can
regain contact with your classmates.
 Robotics - Robots are controlled by software.
 Washing Machines - They operate using software.
 Microwave Oven - They are operated by software.
 Planning and Scheduling - Software can be used to store contact
information, generating plans, scheduling appointments and deadlines.
 Plagiarism - Software can examine content for plagiarism.
 Greeting Cards - You can send and receive greetings pertaining to
different occasions.
 Sports – Software is used for making umpiring decisions. There are
simulation software using which a sportsperson can practice his skills.
Computers are also to identify flaws in technique.
 Aero planes – Pilots train on software, which simulates flying.
 Weather analysis – Supercomputers are used to analyze and predict
weather.

1.8 Computer as a system

A system is a collection of interrelated components that work hand in hand in

order to achieve one common goal. Thus a computer can be termed as system that
consists of Input units, Central Processing Unit (CPU), Output Units and Primary
memory that work hand in hand to perform computations. The figure below
illustrates the computer as a system:

21
Figure 1-1 Computer System

This model illustrated above is an instance of a typical digital computer system. It

is often called the von Neumann computer.

1.8.1 Input units

The term Input/output (I/O) refers to the process of getting information into and
out of the computer system. Input refers to those parts of the computer
responsible for receiving information to programs. The term Output refers to
those parts of the computer that provide results from computation to the system
user.

1.8.2 The Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the heart of the computer and often referred
to as the “brain” of the computer. It is the component that actually executes
instructions which are organized in programs ("software"). These programs are
the ones that tell the computer what to do. The CPU is responsible for controlling
all activities of the computer system.

A general purpose computer has four main components:

 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

 Control Unit

22
  Memory
 Input and Output devices (collectively termed I/O)

These parts are interconnected by busses, often made of groups of wires.

Inside each of these parts are thousands to trillions of small electrical circuits
which can be turned off or on by means of an electronic switch. Each circuit
represents a bit (binary digit) of information so that when the circuit is on it
represents a "1", and when off it represents a "0" (in positive logic representation).
The circuits are arranged in logic gates so that one or more of the circuits may
control the state of one or more of the other circuits.

The control unit, ALU, registers, and basic I/O are collectively known as a central
processing unit (CPU). Early CPUs were composed of many separate components
but since the mid-1970s CPUs have typically been constructed on a single
integrated circuit called a microprocessor.

[Link] Control unit

The control unit manages the computer's various components. It manages by

doing the following:

 it reads and interprets (decodes) the program instructions

 it transforms instructions into a series of control signals which activate
other parts of the computer
 it may change the order of some instructions so as to improve
performance(in advanced computers)

The program counter is another key component common to all CPUs. It is a

special memory cell or a register that keeps track of which location in memory the
next instruction is to be read from.

The control system's function is as follows:

23
 1. Read the code for the next instruction from the cell indicated by the
program counter.
2. Decode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands or
signals for each of the other systems.
3. Increment the program counter so it points to the next instruction.
4. Read whatever data the instruction requires from cells in memory (or
perhaps from an input device). The location of this required data is
typically stored within the instruction code.
5. Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.
6. If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete,
instruct the hardware to perform the requested operation.
7. Write the result from the ALU back to a memory location or to a register
or perhaps an output device.
8. Jump back to step (1).

Since the program counter is (conceptually) just another set of memory cells, it
can be changed by calculations done in the ALU. Adding 100 to the program
counter would cause the next instruction to be read from a place 100 locations
further down the program. Instructions that modify the program counter are often
known as "jumps" and allow for loops (instructions that are repeated by the
computer) and often conditional instruction execution (both examples of control
flow).

[Link] Arithmetic/logic unit (ALU)

The ALU is capable of performing two classes of operations:

 Arithmetic
 Logic

The ALU supports a set of arithmetic operations that includes:

 Addition

24
  Subtraction
 Multiplication
 Division
 Trigonometry functions (sine, cosine, etc.)
 Square roots

Any computer that is capable of performing just the simplest operations can be
programmed to break down the more complex operations into simple steps that it
can perform. Therefore, any computer can be programmed to perform any
arithmetic operation (although it will take more time to do so if its ALU does not
directly support the operation). An ALU may also compare numbers and return
Boolean truth values (true or false) depending on whether one is equal to, greater
than or less than the other.

Logic operations involve Boolean logic:

 AND
 OR
 XOR
 NOT

These can be useful both for creating complicated conditional statements and
processing Boolean logic.

Superscalar computers may contain multiple ALUs so that they can process
several instructions at the same time. Graphics and computers with SIMD and
MIMD features often provide ALUs that can perform arithmetic on vectors and
matrices.

[Link] Memory
A computer's memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be
placed or read. Each cell has a numbered "address" and can store a single number.
Its size is normally measured in bits. The Magnetic core memory was the first

25
computer memory to be used throughout the 1960s, until it was replaced by
semiconductor memory.

In almost all modern computers, each memory cell is set up to store binary
numbers in groups of eight bits (called a byte). Each byte is able to represent 256
different numbers (28 = 256); either from 0 to 255 or −128 to +127. To store
larger numbers, several consecutive bytes may be used (typically, two, four or
eight). When negative numbers are required, they are usually stored in two's
complement notation. Other arrangements are possible, but are usually not seen
outside of specialized applications or historical contexts. A computer can store
any kind of information in memory if it can be represented numerically. Modern
computers have billions or even trillions of bytes of memory.

The CPU contains a special set of memory cells called registers that can be read
and written too much more rapidly than the main memory area. There are
typically between two and one hundred registers depending on the type of CPU.
Registers are used for the most frequently needed data items to avoid having to
access main memory every time data is needed. As data is constantly being
worked on, reducing the need to access main memory (which is often slow
compared to the ALU and control units) greatly increases the computer's speed.

Computer main memory comes in two principal varieties:

 Random-Access Memory (RAM)

 Read-Only Memory ( ROM)

RAM can be read and written to anytime the CPU commands it, but ROM is pre-
loaded with data and software that never changes, so the CPU can only read from
it. ROM is typically used to store the computer's initial start-up instructions. In
general, the contents of RAM are erased when the power to the computer is
turned off, but ROM retains its data indefinitely. In a PC, the ROM contains a
specialized program called the BIOS that orchestrates loading the computer's
operating system from the hard disk drive into RAM whenever the computer is

26
turned on or reset. In embedded computers, which frequently do not have disk
drives, all of the required software may be stored in ROM. Software stored in
ROM is often called firmware, because it is notionally more like hardware than
software. Flash memory blurs the distinction between ROM and RAM, as it
retains its data when turned off but is also rewritable. It is typically much slower
than conventional ROM and RAM however, so its use is restricted to applications
where high speed is unnecessary.

In more sophisticated computers there may be one or more RAM cache memories
which are slower than registers but faster than main memory. Generally
computers with this sort of cache are designed to move frequently needed data
into the cache automatically, often without the need for any intervention on the
programmer's part.

[Link] Input/output (I/O)

I/O is the means by which a computer exchanges information with the outside
world. Devices that provide input or output to the computer are called peripherals.
On a typical personal computer, peripherals include input devices like the
keyboard and mouse, and output devices such as the display and printer. Hard
disk drives, floppy disk drives and optical disc drives serve as both input and
output devices. Computer networking is another form of I/O.

I/O devices are complex computers in their own right with their own CPU and
memory. A graphics processing unit might contain fifty or more tiny computers
that perform the calculations necessary to display 3D graphics Modern desktop
computers contain many smaller computers that assist the main CPU in
performing I/O.

[Link] Type Data of Access

Data in secondary storage device is accessed in two ways:

27
  Sequential - Obtained by proceeding through the storage medium from
the beginning until the designated area is reached (as in magnetic tape).
 Random Access - Direct access (as in floppy and hard disks).

1.9 Data Representation

Number System defines a set of values used to represent ‘quantity’. The term
Base (or Radix) refers to the total number of digits available in a number system.

1.9.1 Decimal Number System

There are 10 digits i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 available in decimal number system.

It is known as Base 10 system. The value of a digit in a number depends upon its
position in the number e.g. the number 546 in this system is represented as (546) 10
546 = (4*102) + (8*101) + (6*100)

1.9.2 Binary Number System

The Binary Number System contains 2 unique digits 0 and 1. it is known as Base
2 system.

1.9.3 Octal Number System

There are 8 unique digits available in octal number system. These are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, and 7. Thus, any number formed is the combination of these digits. It is
known as Base 8 system.

1.9.4 Hexadecimal Number System

There are 16 unique digits available in Hexadecimal number system. These are 0,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, A, B, C, D, E, F where A denotes 10, B denotes 11………, F
denotes 15. Thus any number formed is a combination of these digits. It is known
as Base 16 system.

28
1.9.5 Converting Between Number Bases

[Link] Converting Decimal to Binary, Octal and Hexadecimal

In order to convert a number from decimal to binary, we have to divide the

number by 2. There are two things to not:

 Integer Part
 Remainder method

[Link].1 Procedure

1. Divide the decimal number by the base of the target number system that is,
to convert decimal to binary, divide the decimal number with 2 (the base
of binary number system), 8 for octal and 16 for hexadecimal.
2. Note the remainder separately as the first digit from the right. In case of
hexadecimal, if the remainder exceeds 9, convert the remainder into
equivalent hexadecimal form. For e.g., if the remainder is 10 then note the
remainder as A.
3. Continually repeat the process of dividing until the quotient is zero and
keep writing the remainders after each step of division.
4. Finally, when no more division can occur, write down the remainders in
reverse order.

Fractional Part

1. Multiply the fractional part by the value of the new base.

2. Record the integer part if it exits, else record 0.
3. Repeat step 1 with the result of the previous multiplication and then step 2,
until the fractional part becomes 0. In case of infinite calculations,
generally 6 digits are taken.

29
[Link] Converting Binary, Octal and Hexadecimal to Decimal

The method used for conversion of a binary, octal and hexadecimal number to
decimal number involves each digit of the binary, octal or hexadecimal number to
be multiplied by its weighted position, and then each of the weighted values are
added to get the decimal number.

Example:

Table 1-1 Number Conversion

Binary Number 1 1 0 1 0
Weight of each bit 24 22 22 21 20
Weighted Value 24 * 1 23 * 1 22 * 0 21 * 1 20 * 0
Solved
16 8 0 2 0
Multiplication

Sum of weight of all bits = 16 + 8 + 0 + 2 + 0 = 26

Thus, the decimal equivalent of (11010)2 is (26)10

[Link] Converting Between Octal and Hexadecimal

[Link].1 Procedure

1. Convert each octal digit to 3-bit binary form

2. Combine all the 3-bit binary numbers.
3. Segregate the binary numbers into 4-bit binary form by starting the first
number from the right bit (LSB) towards the number on the left bit (MSB).
4. Finally, convert these 4-bit blocks into their respective hexadecimal
symbols.

[Link] Radix Number Systems

A radix (base), defines the number of possible values that a digit may have. In the
base 10 (decimal) number system, one of the 10 values: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 is

30
used for each digit of a number. The most natural system for representing
numbers in a computer is base 2 (also called "binary"), in which data is
represented as a collection of 1's and 0's. As we will see below, working with
binary numbers is easy once we know how to do it.

The general form for determining the value of a number in a radix k number
system is shown below:

Number = summation (bi x ki) from n-1 to i = -m

The value of the digit in position i is given by bi. There are n digits to the left of
the radix point and there are m digits to the right of the radix point. This form of a
number (in which each position has an assigned weight) is referred to as a
weighted position code.

Consider evaluating (541.25)10, in which the subscript 10 represents the base. We

have n = 3, m = 2 and k = 10:

5 x 102 + 4 x 101 + 1 x 100 + 2 x 10-1 + 5 x 10-2 =

(500)10 + (40)10 + (1)10 + (2/10)10 + (5/100)10 = ((541.25))10

Now consider the base 2 number (1010.01)2 in which n = 4, m = 2 and k = 2:

1 x 23 + 0 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 0 x 20 + 0 x 2-1 + 1 x 2-2 =

(8)10 + (0)10 + (2)10 + (0)10 + (0/2)10 + (1/4)10 = (10.25)10

This shows how a base 2 number can be converted into a base 10 number using
the polynomial method. The idea is to multiply each digit by the weight assigned
to its position (powers of two in this example) and then sum up the terms to obtain
the converted number. Although conversions can be made among all of the bases
in this way, some bases pose special problems, as discussed in the next section.

31
[Link] Conversions among Radices

In converting from base 10 to base 2, the integer and fractional parts of the
number are converted separately. Consider converting (23.375) 10 to base 2. We
begin by separating the number into its integer and fractional parts:

(23.375)10 = (23)10 + (.375)10.

The general polynomial form for representing a binary integer is:

bi x 2i + b(i-1) x 2(i -1) + ... + b1 x 21 + b0 x 20

If we divide the integer by 2, then we will obtain:

bi x 2(i-1) + b(i - 1) x 2(i - 2) + ... + b1 x 20

The remainder will be b0.

As a result of dividing the original integer by 2, we discover the value of the first
binary coefficient b0. We can repeat this process on the remaining polynomial and
determine the value of b1. We can continue iterating the process on the remaining
polynomial and thus obtain all of the bi. This process forms the basis of the
remainder method of converting integers between bases.

We now apply the remainder method to convert 2310 to base 2. As shown below,

32
A conversion from a base 10 integer to a base 2 integer using the remainder
method

The integer is initially divided by 2, which can leave a remainder of only 0 or 1.

For this case, 23/2 produces a quotient of 11 and a remainder of 1. The first
remainder is the least significant binary digit (bit) of the converted number (the
rightmost bit). In the next step 11 is divided by 2, which creates a quotient of 5
and a remainder of 1. Next, 5 is divided by 2, which creates a quotient of 2 and a
remainder of 1. The process continues until we are left with a quotient of 0. If we
continue the process after obtaining a quotient of 0, we will only obtain 0's for the
quotient and remainder, which will not change the value of the converted number.
The remainders are collected into a base 2 number in the order shown above to
produce the result 2310 = 101112. In general, we can convert any base 10 integer to
any other base by simply dividing the integer by the base to which we are
converting.

We can check the result by converting it from base 2 back to base 10 using the
polynomial method:

101112= 1 x 24 + 0 x 23 + 1 x 22 + 1 x 21 + 1 x 20
= 16 + 0 + 4 + 2 + 1
= 2310

33
At this point, we have converted the integer portion of 23.375 10 into base 2. We
still need to convert the fractional portion, which we can accomplish by
successively multiplying the fraction by 2 as described below.

A binary fraction can be represented in the general form:

b-1 x 2-1 + b-2 x 2-2 + b-3 x 2-3 + ...

If we multiply the fraction by 2, then we will obtain:

b-1 + b-2 x 2-1 + b-3 x 2-2 + ...

We thus discover the coefficient b_-1. If we iterate this process on the remaining
fraction, then we will obtain successive b-i. This process forms the basis of the
multiplication method of converting fractions between bases. For the example
used here, the initial fraction (.375) 10 is less than 1. If we multiply it by 2, then the
resulting number will be less than 2. The digit to the left of the radix point will
then be 0 or 1. This is the first digit to the right of the radix point in the converted
base 2 number, as shown in the figure.

A conversion from a base 10 fraction to a base 2 fraction using the multiplication

method

We repeat the process on the fractional portion until we are either left with a
fraction of 0, at which point only trailing 0's are created by additional iterations,
or we have reached the limit of precision used in our representation. The digits are
collected and the result is obtained: (.375)10 = (.011)2.

34
For this process, the multiplier is the same as the target base. The multiplier is 2
here, but if we wanted to make a conversion to another base, such as 3, then we
would use a multiplier of 3.

We can check the result of the conversion by converting from base 2 back to base
10 using the polynomial method as shown below:

(.011)2 = 0 x 2-1 + 1 x 2-2 + 1 x 2-3 = 0 + 1/4 + 1/8 = (.375)10

We now combine the separate conversions for the integer and fractional portions
of the number and obtain the final result:

(23.375)10 = (10111.011)2

Although this method of conversion will work among all bases, some precision
can be lost in the process. For example, not all terminating base 10 fractions have
a terminating base 2 form. Consider converting (.2)10 to base 2 as shown below.

A terminating base 10 fraction that does not have a terminating base 2 form

In the last row of the conversion, the fraction .2 reappears, and so the process
repeats ad infinitum. As to why this can happen, consider that any non-repeating
base 2 integer can be represented as i/2k for some integers i and k. (Repeating
fractions in base 2 cannot be so represented.) Algebraically,

35
i/2k = ix5k/(2kx5k) = ix5k/10k = j/10k

where j is the integer ix5^k. The fraction is thus non-repeating in base 10. This
hinges on the fact that only non-repeating fractions in base b can be represented as
i/bk for some integers i and k. The condition that must be satisfied for a non-
repeating base 10 fraction to have an equivalent non-repeating base 2 fraction is:

i/10k = i/(5kx2k) = j/2k

where j = i/5k, and 5k must be a factor of i. For one digit decimal fractions, only
(.0)10 and (.5)10 are non-repeating in base 2 (20% of the possible fractions); for
two digit decimal fractions, only (.00)10, (.25)10, (.50)10, and (.75)10 are non-
repeating (4% of the possible fractions); etc. There is a link between relatively
prime numbers and repeating fractions, which is helpful in understanding why
some terminating base 10 fractions do not have a terminating base 2 form.

Calculators and business computers typically use an internal representation of

base 10, and thus do not suffer from this representational problem. The motivation
for using base 10 in business computers is not entirely to avoid the terminating
fraction problem, however, but also to avoid the conversion process at the input
and output units which can take a significant amount of time.

Binary numbers are considerably longer than their base 10 equivalents. As a

notational convenience, we sometimes use larger bases than base 2 that are even
multiples of 2. Converting among bases 2, 8, or 16 is easier than converting to and
from base 10. The values used for the base 8 digits are familiar to us as base 10
digits, but for base 16 (hexadecimal) we need six more values than are used in
base 10. The letters (A, B, C, D, E, F) are commonly used to represent the
corresponding values (10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15) in hexadecimal. The digits
commonly used for bases 2, 8, 10, and 16 are summarized below.

36
Values for digits in the binary, octal, decimal, and hexadecimal number systems

In comparing the base 2 column with the base 8 and base 16 columns, we need
three bits to represent each base 8 digit in binary, and we need four bits to
represent each base 16 digit in binary. In general, k bits are needed to represent
each digit in base 2k, in which k is an integer, so base 23 = 8 uses three bits and
base 24 = 16 uses four bits.

In order to convert a base 2 number into a base 8 number, we partition the base 2
number into groups of three starting from the radix point, and pad the outermost
groups with 0's as needed to form triples. Then, we convert each triple to the octal
equivalent. For conversion from base 2 to base 16, we use groups of four.
Consider converting 101102 to base 8:

101102= (010)2 (110)2 = (2)8 (6)8 = (26)8

Notice that the leftmost two bits are padded with a 0 on the left in order to create a
full triplet.

Now consider converting 101101102 to base 16:

101101102 = (1011)2 (0110)2 = (B)16 (6)16 = (B6)16

37
The conversion methods can be used to convert a number from any base to any
other base, but it may not be very intuitive to convert something like (513.03) 6 to
base 7. As an aid in performing an unnatural conversion, we can convert to the
more familiar base 10 forms as an intermediate step, and then continue the
conversion from base 10 to the target base. As a general rule, we use the
polynomial method when converting into base 10, and we use the remainder and
multiplication methods when converting out of base 10.

[Link] Signed Binary Numbers

We need to learn how to perform simple binary addition so that we can represent
signed binary numbers. Binary addition is performed similar to the way we
perform decimal addition by hand, as illustrated below.

Example of binary addition

Two binary numbers A and B are added from right to left, creating a sum and a
carry in each bit position. Since the rightmost bits of A and B can each assume
one of two values, four cases must be considered: 0 + 0, 0 + 1, 1 + 0, and 1 + 1,
with a carry of 0, as shown in the figure. The carry into the rightmost bit position
defaults to 0. For the remaining bit positions, the carry into the position can be 0
or 1, so that a total of eight input combinations must be considered as shown in
the figure.

38
Notice that the largest number we can represent using the eight-bit format shown
in Figure above is 111111112 = 25510 and that the smallest number that can be
represented is 000000002 = 010. The bit patterns 11111111 and 00000000 and all
of the intermediate bit patterns represent numbers on the closed interval from 0 to
255, which are all positive numbers. Up to this point we have considered only
unsigned numbers, but we need to represent signed numbers as well. Four
common representations for base 2 signed numbers are discussed in this section.

[Link] Signed magnitude

The signed magnitude (also referred to as sign and magnitude) representation is

most familiar to us as the base 10 number system. A plus or minus sign to the left
of a number indicates whether the number is positive or negative as in +12 10 or -
1210. In the binary signed magnitude representation the leftmost bit is used for the
sign, which takes on a value of 0 or 1 for “+” or “-“, respectively. The remaining
bits contain the absolute magnitude. Consider representing +12 10 and -1210 in an
eight-bit format:

+1210 = 000011002
-1210 = 100011002

The negative number is formed by simply changing the sign bit in the positive
number from 0 to 1. Notice that there are both positive and negative
representations for zero: 00000000 and 10000000.

There are eight bits in this example format, and all bit patterns represent valid
numbers, so there are 28 = 256 possible patterns. Only 28 - 1 = 255 different
numbers can be represented, however, since +0 and -0 represent the same number.

[Link] One's complement

In the one's complement representation, the leftmost bit is 0 for positive numbers
and is 1 for negative numbers, as it is for the signed magnitude representation. A

39
negation is made by changing 1's to 0's and changing 0's to 1's, which is known as
complementing the bits. Consider again representing +1210 and -12 10 in an eight-
bit format, now using the one's complement representation:

+1210 = 000011002
-12 10= 111100112

Note again that there are representations for both +0 and -0, which are 00000000
and 11111111, respectively. As a result, there are only 28 - 1 = 255 different
numbers that can be represented even though there are 28 different bit patterns.

[Link] Two's complement

In the two's complement representation, the leftmost bit is 0 for positive numbers
and is 1 for negative numbers. A negation is made by adding 1 to the one's
complement negation. Consider again representing +12 10and -12 10in an eight-bit
format, this time using the two's complement representation:

+1210 = 000011002
-12 10= 111101002

The negative number is obtained by simply adding 1 to the one's complement

negation, which corresponds to the one's complement bit pattern for -11: (-12 +
1)10 = (-11)10 = 111101002. There is only one representation of 0 for this format
which is 00000000. To see that this is true, consider forming the negative of
(+0)10, which has the bit pattern:

(+0)10 = (00000000)2

Forming the one's complement of 000000002 produces 111111112 and adding 1 to

it yields 000000002, thus (-0)10 = 000000002. The carry out of the leftmost
position is discarded in two's complement addition (except when detecting an
overflow). Since there is only one representation for 0, and since all bit patterns
are valid, there are 28 = 256 different numbers that can be represented.

40
There is an equal number of positive and negative numbers. Zero is considered to
be a positive number because its sign bit is 0. The positive numbers start at 0, but
the negative numbers start at -1, and so the magnitude of the most negative
number is one greater than the magnitude of the most positive number. The
positive number with the largest magnitude is +127, and the negative number with
the largest magnitude is -128. There is thus no positive number that can be
represented that corresponds to the negative of -128. If we try to form the two's
complement negative of -128, then we will arrive at a negative number, as shown
below:

-12810 = 100000002

This gives us;

01111111

+ 1

------------

100000002

The two's complement representation is common in conventional computers, and

we will use it throughout the book.

41
Activity 1

1. State and explain four differences between microcomputers and macro

computers [4]
2. Give any two properties of a Von Neumann computer [2]
3. The term I/O stands for what? [2]

42
 Reference

Bradley,R. (1999). Understanding Computer Science.4th Edition. Stanely Thomas,

Cheltenham. UK.

Dent, C. (2001). Studer: classification v. categorization. Retrieved June 28, 2006,

from
[Link]
l.

Dick, D.(2002) .PC Multimedia & Web, Technology and Techniques. 2nd Edition,
Dumbreck Publishing.

[Link]

43
UNIT 2

COMPUTER HARDWARE

2 COMPUTER HARDWARE

2.1 Aim

The learner must understand computer hardware components.

2.2 Objectives

At the end of this Unit, the learner should be able to:

 Know what computer hardware mean
 Identify and describe the basic computer hardware components

2.3 Definition

Computer hardware refers to all the tangible components of a computer system.

These includes all the physical parts of the computer system such as the monitor,
keyboard, mouse, CPU ,RAM, Expansion, Power, Optical disks , Hard disk drive
and speakers to mention a few.

Figure 2-2 Computer Hardware

The figure above is a simple labeled illustration of a basic computer hardware.

44
Figure 2-3 Computer hardware

2.4 Input hardware:

Input hardware refers to the tangible components of a computer that deal with
original data input. The following are instances of computer input:

 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Voice recognition hardware
 Scanner
 Digital camera

2.4.1 Keyboard

45
Figure 2-4 Keyboard

A keyboard is typewriter keyboard, which uses an arrangement of keys, to act as

mechanical levers or electronic switches. After punch cards and paper tape,
interaction via teletype-style keyboards became the main input device for
computers. The standard layout of letters, numbers, and punctuation is known as a
QWERTY keyboard because the first six keys on the top row of letters spell
QWERTY. The QWERTY keyboard was designed in the 1800s for mechanical
typewriters and was actually designed to slow typists down to avoid jamming the
keys. Another keyboard design, which has letters positioned for speed typing, is
the Dvorak keyboard.

2.4.2 Mouse

Figure 2-5 Mouse

A mouse is a pointing device that functions by detecting two-dimensional motion

relative to its supporting surface. Physically, a mouse consists of an object held
under one of the user's hands, with one or more buttons. Modern mice have

46
spring-loaded regions of their top surface that operate switches when pressed
down lightly. The mouse's motion typically translates into the motion of a cursor
on a display, which allows for fine control of a graphical user interface.

2.4.3 Voice recognition hardware

Figure 2-6 Microphone

The above image is a Cardioids US664A University Sound Dynamic

Supercardioid Microphone which is a basic input device for audio input inform of
sound waves.

The most common unidirectional microphone is a cardioid microphone, so named

because the sensitivity pattern is heart-shaped. A hyper-cardioid microphone is
similar but with a tighter area of front sensitivity and a smaller lobe of rear
sensitivity. A super-cardioid microphone is similar to a hyper-cardioid, except
there is more front pickup and less rear pickup. These three patterns are
commonly used as vocal or speech microphones, since they are good at rejecting
sounds from other directions.

2.4.4 Scanner

47
Figure 2-7 Scanner

An image scanner (abbreviated to just scanner) is a device that optically scans

images, printed text, handwriting, or an object, and converts it to a digital image.
Common examples found in offices are variations of the desktop (or flatbed)
scanner where the document is placed on a glass window for scanning. Hand-held
scanners, where the device is moved by hand, have evolved from text scanning
"wands" to 3D scanners used for industrial design, reverse engineering, test and
measurement, orthotics, gaming and other applications. Mechanically driven
scanners that move the document are typically used for large-format documents,
where a flatbed design would be impractical. Modern scanners typically use a
charge-coupled device (CCD) or a Contact Image Sensor (CIS) as the image
sensor, whereas older drum scanners use a photomultiplier tube as the image
sensor. A rotary scanner, used for high-speed document scanning, is another type
of drum scanner, using a CCD array instead of a photomultiplier. Other types of
scanners are planetary scanners, which take photographs of books and documents,
and 3D scanners, for producing three-dimensional models of objects.

2.4.5 Digital Camera

48
Figure 2-8 Camera

A digital camera is an instance of a camera that takes video or still photographs,

or both, digitally by recording images via an electronic image sensor. Both the
screenshot above and below are examples of digital cameras.

Figure 2-9 Canon PowerShop A95 Camera

The screenshot represents both the front and back ends of a Canon PowerShot
A95 camera. Digital cameras can do things film cameras cannot:
 displaying images on a screen immediately after they are recorded
 storing thousands of images on a single small memory device
 recording video with sound

49
  deleting images to free storage space
 crop pictures
 perform elementary image editing

The optical system works the same as in film cameras, typically using a lens with
a variable diaphragm to focus light onto an image pickup device. The diaphragm
and shutter admit the correct amount of light to the imager, just as with film but
the image pickup device is electronic rather than chemical. Digital cameras are
also incorporated into many devices ranging from PDAs and mobile phones
(called camera phones) to vehicles. The Hubble Space Telescope and other
astronomical devices are essentially specialized digital cameras.

2.5 Connecting Hardware to the computer:

Computer Hardware needs access through some general input/output connection.

Peripheral Devices are connected to the computer system via system ports.

2.5.1 Port

A Port is a pathway for data to go into and out of the computer from external
devices such as keyboards. There are many standard ports as well as custom
electronic ports designed for special purposes. Ports follow standards that define
their use; for instance,

 SCSI, USB: Multiple peripheral devices (chain).

 RS-232, IDE: Individual peripheral devices.

2.5.2 Data storage

The common basic technologies for storing binary information in a computer

system include:

 Electronic
 Magnetic

50
  Optical

[Link] Electronic Circuits

Characteristics of the electronic circuits as a technology for data storage:

 Most expensive of the three forms for storing binary information.

 A flip-flop circuit has either one electronic status or the other. It is said to
flip-flop from one to the other.
 Electronic circuits come in two forms(Permanent and Non-permanent)

[Link] Magnetic Technology

In magnetic technology, data is stored inform of magnetized spots. Magnetic

tapes and disks are normally used for data storage. Very tiny spots on the disk are
magnetized to represent 0s and 1s. Floppy disks use this technology.

The following are the basic characteristics of the device that can “read” that
information from the magnetic storage medium.

 The drive spins the disk.

 It has a magnetic sensing arm that moves over the disk.
 Performs nondestructive reading.

Figure 2-10 Floppy Diskette

51
[Link] Optical

Optical technology uses lasers to “read” the binary information from the medium,
usually a disc. DVDs and CDs use this kind of data storing technology. A laser
light is often used to burn data onto such discs. These discs have the following
properties:

 Millions of tiny holes are “burned” into the surface of the disc using a
DVD RW / CD RW drive.
 The holes are interpreted as 1s. The absences of holes are interpreted as
0s.

Figure 2-11 CD

[Link] Secondary Memory Input Devices

These are input devices which are normally used by a computer system to store
information and then to retrieve that information as needed. They are usually
external to the computer and commonly consist of floppy disks, hard disk drives,
or CD-ROMs. Secondary memory uses binary and its capacity is measured in
bytes. The four most important characteristics of storage devices:

 Speed and access time

 Cost / Removable versus non-removable
 Capacity
 Type of access

52
Speed refers to Access time which defines how fast information can be taken
from or stored onto the computer memory device’s medium. The electronic
circuits are the fastest to access (40 billionths of a second). Floppy disks are very
slow in comparison to electronic circuits. They take up to 1/2 second to reach full
speed before access is even possible.

Capacity refers to the amount of information that can be stored on a storage

medium. The following is a summary of the basic measurements and associated
approximations for capacity of storage mediums.

Unit Description Approximate Size

1 bit 1 binary digit

1 nibble 4 bits

1 byte 8 bits 1 character

1 kilobyte 1,024 bytes »1/2 page, double spaced

1 megabyte 1,048,576 bytes »500,000 pages

1 million bytes

1 gigabyte 1,073,741,824 bytes »5 million pages

1 billion bytes

1 terabyte 1 trillion bytes »5 billion pages

All these can be summarized as follows:

Units Equivalent
1 bit 1 binary bit
1 nibble 4 bits

53
 1 byte 8 bits
1 kilobyte 1024 bytes
1 megabyte 1024 kilobytes
1gigabyte 1024 megabytes
1 terabyte 1024 gigabytes

2.6 Output Units

The Output Units are used for storing and displaying information (calculated
results and other messages). These units can be classified into those that produce:

 Audio output
 Visual output
 Hardcopy output
 Storage

2.6.1 Visual Output

The Visual display unit (often known as the monitor or screen) is used for visual
output by all basic computer systems. The display monitors come in two types:

 Cathode ray tube (CRT) - Streams of electrons make phosphors glow on

a large vacuum tube.
 Liquid crystal display (LCD) - A flat panel display that uses crystals to
let varying amounts of different colored light to pass through it.

54
2.6.2 LCD

Figure 2-12 LCD Monitor

The figure above is an example of a LCD monitor. LCD displays were used on
laptop computers before the technology improved enough to make the jump to
desktop monitors. An LCD monitor consists of five layers:

 a backlight
 a sheet of polarized glass
 a "mask" of colored pixels
 a layer of liquid crystal solution responsive to a wired grid of x, y
coordinates
 a second polarized sheet of glass

By manipulating the orientations of crystals through precise electrical charges of

varying degrees and voltages, the crystals act like tiny shutters, opening or closing
in response to the stimulus, thereby allowing degrees of light that have passed
through specific colored pixels to illuminate the screen, creating a picture. The
most crucial specifications to consider when shopping for an LCD monitor
include contrast ratio, brightness (or "nits"), viewing angle, and response time.

Contrast ratio relates to the display's comparative difference between its brightest
white values and its darkest black values. A higher contrast ratio will have truer
colors with less "wash out." The standard offering for lower end models is
commonly 350:1. Many experts recommend a contrast ratio of 500:1 or better.

55
An LCD monitor is brighter than a CRT, giving the consumer little reason to hunt
for an especially bright model. Brightness is measured in nits, or one candela per
square meter. Anywhere from 250 - 300 nits is standard. If the nits are much
higher you'll likely end up adjusting the brightness way down.

The viewing angle is an especially important consideration if you plan to have

multiple people viewing the LCD monitor at any given time. There is a vertical
and a horizontal viewing angle specification, which refers to the degree you can
stray from dead center before the picture starts to wash out. High contrast levels
usually go hand-in-hand with wider viewing angles. Many recommend a viewing
angle of at least 140 degrees horizontal and 120 degrees vertical. The wider the
viewing angles, the better.

Response time is measured in milliseconds (ms) and refers to how long it takes
pixels to turn from completely white to black and back again. Smaller values
represent a faster response time and are more desirable, especially for gaming or
viewing video. If the response time is slow, "ghosting" or "trailing" can occur
with fast-moving images, as repaints of the screen overlap. A maximum response
time should be no more than 25ms for general use, and 17ms is better. Many
gamers report no ghosting using an LCD monitor with a response time of 16ms or
less.

LCDs use only one-third to one-half the electricity of their CRT counterparts.
They are much easier on the eyes, take up 90% less space, and only weigh a few
pounds. They also emit far less low-frequency radiation than CRTs. This makes
LCDs a great choice for nearly everyone, and ideal for people who work all day in
front of the screen. Colors may change hue as one move to the outer limits of the
viewing angle, particularly on displays with narrow viewing angles and low
contrast ratios. For this reason graphics professionals that require exacting color
consistency regardless of viewing angle generally use CRTs, though LCDs have
improved in this regard.

56
An LCD monitor comes in standard sizes from 15-inches to 21-inches, and larger.
The viewing screen is the same size as the rated display, unlike CRT monitors.
Therefore a 15-inch LCD will have a 15-inch viewing screen.

2.6.3 CRT

CRT stands for cathode ray tube, describing the technology inside an analog
computer monitor or television set. The CRT monitor creates a picture out of
many rows or lines of tiny colored dots. These are technically not the same thing
as pixels, but the terms are often used interchangeably. The more the lines of dots
per inch, the higher and clearer the resolution becomes on a CRT. Therefore a
1024 x 768 resolution will be sharper than a 800 x 600 resolution because the
former uses more lines creating a denser, more detailed picture. Higher
resolutions are important for displaying the subtle detail of graphics.

Figure 2-13 CRT Monitor

The figure above is an example of a CRT monitor. Inside a CRT monitor is a

picture tube that narrows at the rear into a bottleneck. In the bottleneck is a
negative charged filament or cathode enclosed in a vacuum. When electricity is
supplied, the filament heats up and a stream or "ray" of electrons pours off the
element into the vacuum. The negatively charged electrons are attracted to
positively charged anodes which focus the particles into three narrow beams,
accelerating them to strike the phosphor-coated screen. Phosphor will glow when

57
exposed to any kind of radiation, absorbing ultraviolet light and emitting visible
light of fluorescent color. Phosphors that emit red, green and blue light are used in
a color monitor, arranged as "stripes" made up of dots of color. The three beams
are used to excite the three colors in combinations needed to create the various
hues that form the picture.

To precisely direct the beams, copper steering coils are used to create magnetic
fields inside the tube. The fields move the electron beams vertically or
horizontally. By applying varying voltages to the steering coils, a beam can be
positioned at any point on the screen. Each image is painted on the screen and
repainted several times each second by scanning the electron beams across the
screen at incredible rates. This must be done even when the picture being
displayed is unchanging, because the phosphor only glows for a very short time.

The refresh rate indicates how many times per second the screen is repainted.
Though monitors differ in their capabilities, lower resolutions normally have
higher refresh rates because it takes less time to paint a lower resolution.
Therefore a setting of 800 x 600 might have a refresh rate of 85Hz while a
resolution setting of 1024 x 768 may have a refresh rate of 72Hz. Still higher
resolutions usually have refresh rates closer to 60Hz. Another specification
regarding CRT monitors is "dot pitch" which relates to the tightness or sharpness
of the picture. A lower dot pitch such as .25 is preferable over a higher dot pitch.
In the heyday of the CRT monitor this was an issue because some models were
sold with .32 dot pitch, resulting in "fuzzy" text. By the end of the CRT era,
virtually all displays had .28 or better and today's CRT monitors can have dot
pitches as low as .21.

The CRT monitor comes in 15-inch to 21-inch sizes (38 — 53 cm) and larger,
though the actual viewing screen is about 1 inch (2.5 cm) smaller than the rated
size. Screens are measured diagonally from corner to corner, including the case.

58
2.6.4 Projector

Figure 2-14 Projector

LCD projectors are systems that display or project information or video onto a
surface. LCD stands for liquid crystal display, the technology used to project
images. LCD projectors are the technological descendants of overhead and slide
projectors, older systems which serve the same purpose. LCD projectors are most
commonly used for displaying images in presentations or lectures, but are also
used in home theater applications.

Video signals are comprised of three colors: red, green, and blue. LCD projectors
contain a separate glass panel for each. Each panel consists of two plates of glass
with a layer of liquid crystal between them. When a charge is applied, the crystals
open to allow light through or close to block it. This opening and closing of pixels
is what forms the image.

LCD projectors use dichroic mirrors to split the light from the input source into
red, green, and blue components. Each then passes through the corresponding
panel, where pixels form an image. The three colors are then recombined in a
prism before being projected through a lens. LCD projectors use separate panels
for each color because it results in better color saturation than using a single panel
for all three.

59
While all LCD projectors perform the same fundamental task, there are many
different models available, and consumers should know what their projector will
be used for before selecting one. LCD projectors are priced based on several
factors, especially resolution. The highest resolution LCD projectors are only
worth the money for those who need to project fine details as accurately as
possible. The right amount of brightness, measured in lumens, depends on the
lighting conditions the projector will be used under, as well as audience size. A
darkened home theater requires less brightness than a fully lit conference room.

Other factors in considering LCD projectors are portability, computer

connectivity, and input options. LCD projectors with higher resolution weigh
more and are therefore less portable. Those using multiple computers to make
presentations should consider a projector that is easily compatible with different
systems. LCD projectors used to project movies in a home theater should have
component video inputs for the best picture quality.

2.6.5 Audio Output Devices

Figure 2-15 Multimedia Speaker

All basic computer systems need speakers for audio output. Windows machines
need special audio card for audio output. Audio output is useful for:

 Music

• CD player is a computer.

60
 • Most personal computers have CD players that can access both
music CDs and CD-ROMs.

 Voice synthesis (becoming more human sounding.)

 Multimedia
 Specialized tasks (i.e.: elevator’s floor announcements)

2.6.6 Hardcopy Output

Figure 2-16 Printer

Printers are used for hardcopy output which is in form of printed material. Printers
are classified into two: impact and no-impact printers. An impact printer is a
printing device typically used in conjunction with a computer that allows the
relatively rapid and repeatable printing of visual materials. Though most often
used in obsolete printers for text, some forms of impact printer, such as dot matrix
printers, continue to be used for certain purposes. Replaced by toner-based and
inkjet printers in most applications, an impact printer works by literally impacting
letters or shapes onto a piece of paper. Similar in function to a traditional
typewriter, this process involves needles or letter-shaped heads striking against an
ink-soaked ribbon and impacting a sheet of paper on the other side. Designed to
function similarly to old-fashioned typewriters, an impact printer is somewhat
simplistic but suffered from many of the same problems that typewriters faced.
Users of impact printers had to worry about changing ink ribbons, jammed heads,
and the inability for most models to create different typefaces and styles as well as
lacking the ability to make images. Bold type fonts and underline could be

61
achieved through over striking, which is applying two or more impacts to the
same region of paper. Since the letters themselves were part of the physical
construction of the printer, without changing the heads with the letters on them, a
user could not change the style or font of the printed text.

Impact printers also suffered from an inability to print in anything but

monochromatic or black. Since the process requires a ribbon that is struck by each
head, the same color is used throughout the entire printing process. The advent of
toner-based and inkjet printers that use individual cartridges of color and pigment
to create the completed image made reliable and affordable color printing much
more accessible. Toner-based printers use a laser and electrostatic to apply dry ink
to a page, while inkjet printers propel liquid ink directly onto a surface to create
an image or text.

2.6.7 Non impact printer

Figure 2-17 Printer

Laser printers are examples of non-impact printers. They are rapid and crisp
printers which makes them a popular choice for many consumers. Laser printers
begin a print job by receiving data from a computer and routing it through a
central controller, a small computer inside the printer which manages the printer.
Many laser printers have a controller which is capable of handling several jobs at
once. They queue them up, and then print them. This ability to handle multiple
sets of data makes laser printers quite popular. After the controller has determined
what is going to be printed, the process begins.

62
Inside a laser printer there is a drum which holds an electric charge. Next to the
drum is a transfer corona roller, which can negatively or positively charge the
drum as needed, as well as a toner unit. In most laser printers, the drum starts out
positively charged, although this process can also work in reverse. The controller
manipulates a small laser to “write” on the drum with a negative charge, creating
an electrostatic image.

Then, the drum is rolled through the toner, which is positively charged so that it
will cling to the areas of negative charge on the printer drum. The printer feeds a
piece of paper, which is given an even stronger negative charge by the transfer
corona wire before being rolled past the drum. The electrostatic image on the
drum will transfer to the paper, which is then discharged to prevent it from
clinging to the drum. Then it is fed through a fuser which heats the toner and
causes it to bind with the fibers in the paper.

2.7 Storage

Optical Disks (CD-ROM and DVD) are instances of storage medium used by may
computer systems. Special CD drives “burn” information into blank CDs and the
same happens to DVDs. A laser is used to “burn” craters into the surface to
represent a binary 1. Two main types of CDs:

 CD-R (Compact Disk - Recordable)

 CD-WR (Compact Disk - ReWritable)

The CD-R is a write-once and read many times optical disk. If data is burned
there once, it cannot be erased for the entire life of that media. CD-WR is similar
to the CD-R but the main difference comes of the fact that it can be erased and
new data can be written on the same disk surface again. CD-R and CD-WR carry
an average capacity of 720mb (720 megabytes) of data.

The same applies to DVDs; we have DVD-R and DVD-WR which are created by
a drive like the one below;

63
Figure 2-18 Disk Drive

2.7.1 DVD (Digital Versatile Disk)

DVDs allows up to 17 gigabytes of storage (from 4.7 GB to 17 GB). There four

versions of the DVD:

Figure 2-19 DVD

2.7.2 Hard disk drive

A hard drive, also known as a hard disk drive or HDD, is a fundamental part of
modern computers. The hard drive is where all of your programs and files are
stored, so if the drive is damaged for some reason, you will lose everything on
your computer.

64
Figure 2-20 Hard Disk Drive

A hard drive uses similar memory storage technology to cassette tapes and video
tapes. You may already know that tapes store information on long, thin strips of
tape with a delicate magnetic material on its surface. Likewise, hard drives
contain round, mirror-like platters that are covered with that same magnetic
recording medium.

The platters inside a hard disk drive are usually made of glass or aluminum. It is
the polished magnetic material on the surface that makes the platter appear shiny,
like a mirror. A clean, polished surface is critical to the proper functioning of the
hard drive — even the smallest spec of dust can cause irreparable damage.

65
Just as a head inside of your cassette player or VHS player reads the data on the
tape, a head inside your hard disk drive reads and writes data to the platters. This
head is on an arm that is attached next to the platters, so that it can pivot back and
forth over them.

The average modern hard disk drive has several platters inside of it, stacked one
on top of the other, like an Oreo cookie. There is a small gap between each
platter, which allows each platter’s head to pass over it. The heads are all on the
same arm, which has a separate branch for each head, rather like the tines of a
fork turned on its side.

When you turn your computer on, the platters immediately begin to spin. The
platters in a desktop computer hard disk drive typically get up to about 7,200
rotations per minute (rpm), while the hard drives in laptop computers usually run
at 5,400 rpm. You may be able to hear the steady hum of your hard drive when
the fan is not running.

When your computer is on but you are not retrieving or writing anything to the
memory, the platters in the hard disk drive are always spinning. The arm with the
heads on it, however, only begins to move when you run a program or open, save,
or delete a file. This arm can move back and forth across the surface of the platter
as many as 50 times in a single second, causing it to appear as a blur if you ever
have the opportunity to watch. Because everything in the hard disk drive moves
so quickly, the head never actually touches the platters, instead skimming just
barely above them, supported by a cushion of moving air that is generated by the
platters’ spinning.

The rapid motion of the platters and heads inside your hard disk drive make it
susceptible to “head crash,” which is where the heads crash into the platters.
Several different things can cause head crash. If dust gets into your hard drive and
settles on the platters, it can actually cause the arm to bounce as the disk operates.

66
The magnetic recording medium is extremely fragile, and is often ruined when the
heads crash into the platters.

Activity 2

1. Identify all the computer hardware that are illustrated below [20]

Figure 2-21 Computer Hardware

67
2. State any two examples of computer input hardware other than mouse and
keyboard. [2]
3. The main memory consists of two major types namely: RAM and ROM.
i. Describe the two memories (ROM and RAM). [2]
ii. What are their main differences?
[2]
4. Briefly explain the differences between sequential and random access.

[4]
5. A general purpose computer has four main components: the arithmetic and
logic unit (ALU), the control Unit, the memory and I/O. State the roles of
each of these components [4]

68
REFERENCE

Bradley,R. (1999). Understanding Computer Science.4th Edition. Stanely Thomas,

Cheltenham. UK.

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

69
 UNIT 3

COMPUTER SOFTWARE

3 COMPUTER SOFTWARE

3.1 Aim

The reader must understand all Computer Software and Software Ethics

3.2 Objectives

The reader is expected to learn the following concepts;

 define software
 Identify all software types
 Identify Business Software
 Know Software and Ethics

3.3 Definition

Computer software refers to computer programs, which are sets coded

instructions that perform computation. The defining feature of modern computers
which distinguishes them from all other machines is that they can be
programmed. That is to say that some type of instructions (the program) can be
given to the computer, and it will carry process them. While some computers may
have strange concepts "instructions" and "output" (see quantum computing),
modern computers based on the von Neumann architecture are often have
machine code in the form of an imperative programming language.

In practical terms, a computer program may be just a few instructions or extend to

many millions of instructions, as do the programs for word processors and web
browsers for example. A typical modern computer can execute billions of
instructions per second (gigaflops) and rarely makes a mistake over many years of
operation. Large computer programs consisting of several million instructions
may take teams of programmers’ years to write, and due to the complexity of the
task almost certainly contain errors.

70
3.4 Software Classes

Computer software can be classified into:

 System software
 Application software
 Utility software

3.4.1 System Software

System software refers to all computer programs that are responsible for direct
control of the computer hardware. The operating system is an example of systems
software.

[Link] Operating System

An operating system (OS) is software that consisting of programs and data, that
runs on computers and manages the computer hardware. It provides common
services for efficient execution of various programs. The operating system acts as
an intermediary between application programs and the computer hardware,
although the application code is usually executed directly by the hardware, but
will frequently call the OS or be interrupted by it. Operating systems are found on
almost any device that contains a computer from cellular phones and video game
consoles to supercomputers and web servers. Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and
Linux are examples of popular modern operating systems for personal computers.
The operating is also responsible for management of the following activities:

 Program execution
 Interrupts
 Modes
 Memory management
 Virtual memory
 Multitasking
 Disk access and file systems
 Device drivers

71
3.4.2 Application software
These are computer programs that apply to real-world tasks through solving user
related. All good application software must have the following characteristics:
 User-friendly
 Easy
 Intuitive
 Minimum training and documentation needed to use

3.4.3 Types of Software

 Freeware
 Free to all
 Copyrighted
 Distributed in machine-readable format
 Shareware
 Generally developed under government grants
 Freely distributed for a trial period
 Pay a nominal fee to register with the author

 Public-domain software
 Un-copyrighted
 May be used or altered without restriction
 Generally developed under government grants
 Open-source
 Free to all
 Source code is distributed
 May be used or altered
 Popular under the LINUX OS
 Commercial software
 Used most often
 Copyrighted

72
  Generally costly
 May not be copied without permission of the manufacturer

3.4.4 Acquiring Software

Freeware, Open-source and shareware software are distributed freely to those in
need over the internet. Sometimes a nominal fee has to be paid before the
software can be downloaded on the internet. Commercial software can be
acquired through:
 Software warehouse store
 Mail order
 Electronic software distribution
 Application Service Provide (ASP)

3.4.5 Application software examples

Microsoft Office suit is instance task-oriented software that help user in solving
user problems. It performs various tasks to serve user interests. Office Suites have
the following characteristics:
 Group of basic software applications designed to work together
 Data is portable between basic applications of the suite
 Various applications in the suite have the same “look and feel”
 Cost of suite is less than purchasing individual applications

[Link] Word Processing

Microsoft word is a package within Microsoft office suit which is an instance of
a word processing application. It is used for the production (including
composition, editing, formatting, and possibly printing) of any sort of printable
material (documents). The following is a screenshot that depicts a word document

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Figure 3-22 Microsoft Word

 Uses
Microsoft word can be used in the production of:
 Memos
 Reports
 Correspondence
 Minutes of meetings
 Anything to be typed
 Functions
The following are list of the functions that can be executed on the word
document or on the document’s contents:
 Create
 Edit
 Format
 Store
 Print text and graphics

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[Link] Desktop Publishing

Microsoft publisher is a package within Microsoft office suit which is an instance

of a publishing application. It is used for the production of publications like
Newsletters. The illustration below is for a publisher work on the design of a book
cover.

Figure 3-23 Microsoft Publisher

 Uses
The following is a simple list of the works of publisher.
 Newsletters
 Reports
 Brochures
 Functions
 Handles high-level publishing needs

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[Link] Electronic Spreadsheets
Microsoft Excel is a package within Microsoft office suit. It is useful for works
that require statistical analysis. The illustration below is for a publisher work on
the design of a book cover.

Figure 3-24 Microsoft Excel

 Uses
 Comparing mortgage interest rates
 Preparing budgets
 Tracking weight loss
 Functions
 Manipulates numbers in rows and columns
 Recalculates the results when a number is changed
 What if?

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[Link] Database Management
Microsoft Access is a package within Microsoft office suit which is an instance of
a database application. It is used for the production of databases. The illustration
below is for a utility database designed in Microsoft Access.

Figure 3-25 Microsoft Access

 Uses
 Keep track of a large number of related facts
 Query the data for specific information
 Retrieve information in a variety of ways
 Functions
 Store data
 Update data
 Manipulate data
 Retrieve data
 Print data in many forms
 Report on data in a variety of ways

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[Link] Presentation Graphics
Microsoft power point is a package within Microsoft office suit which is an
instance of a presentation application. It is used for the production of
presentations.

Figure 3-26 Microsoft PowerPoint

 Uses
 Sales tool
 Demonstrate a product
 Show cost/benefit projections on charts
 Present audio/video testimonials from satisfied customers
 May contain
 Text
 Graphics
 Audio
 Video

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[Link] Computer Art

Various computer software packages are available on the internet as either

commercial or open-source software that can be used for graphic designing and
manipulation. These software packages include Adobe Photoshop. The image
below is an instance of a graphic art.

Figure 3-27 Clip Art

 Use software to
 Produce art
 Express ideas
 Graphic artist
 Artistic ability
 Computer skills
 Produces computer art

3.4.6 Software for Business

Computerised systems are the major backbone in most business systems. Almost
all organizations are becoming addicted to computerized systems as they are more

79
efficient that human counter parts in performing the same tasks. The following are
instances of business areas where computers are crucial as an aid to enhance
business operations.

 Accounting
 Spreadsheet software
 Accounting package – Basic accounting, financial statements, tax
summaries, payroll
 Writing and Advertising
 Word processing
 Desktop publishing
 Customer Service
 Database management
 Keeping Up and Making Contacts
 Networking over the Internet
 Making Sales Pitches
 Graphical presentation software

3.4.7 Software Ethics

[Link] Software Piracy

Software piracy can be defined as the making of illegal copies of copyrighted
software which means that the software company may lose hundreds if not
thousands of dollars per pirated copy.
 Why the fuss?
 Very easy to duplicate software vs. a text book
 Prosecution
 Yes: Small-medium sized business who purchase a few copies and
distribute to many users
 No: Individual users who probably would not have purchased
software on their own anyway

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[Link] Counterfeiting
Software counterfeiting can be defined by the following:
 Software is copied onto CD-ROMS / DVD-ROMS
 Package duplicates the original
 Sold in flea markets or small stores
 Cheaper price
 Occurs more overseas

[Link] Copying Software

Software can be copied for the following reasons:
 Legitimate reasons
 Backup copy
 Copy to hard disk
 Illegitimate reasons
 Obtain software without paying for it

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 Activity 3

1. Give any four features of good software [4]

2. Briefly explain software acquisition under the following headings
i. Shareware [2]
ii. Open source [2]
iii. Commercial [2]
3. What is software counterfeiting? [2]

82
 REFERENCE

Bradley,R. (1999). Understanding Computer Science.4th Edition. Stanely Thomas,

Cheltenham. UK.

Deitel, H.M., 1990, Operating Systems. (Second Edition). Addison Wesley.

Silberschatz

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

Sommerville,I. (1995). Software Engineering. Addison Wesley Publishers LTD.

England.

83
UNIT 4

DATABASES

4 DATABASES

4.1 Aim

The reader must understand databases, their design, models and database
management.

4.2 Objectives

At the end of this chapter the reader should be able to:

 Define what a database is.

 State the merits of using a database over conventional file system

 Define a DBMS

 Identify the major types of DBMS

 Identify the functions of a DBMS

 Explain the differences between a database and the conventional file

system

4.3 Definition

A database is a collection of interrelated data’s stored in a database server; these

data’s will be stored in the form of tables. The primary aim of database is to
provide a way to store and retrieve database information in fast and efficient
manner.

A database is an organized collection of data. A database management system

(DBMS) such as Access, FileMaker, Lotus Notes, Oracle or SQL Server provides
you with the software tools you need to organize that data in a flexible manner. It
includes tools to add, modify or delete data from the database, ask questions (or

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queries) about the data stored in the database and produce reports summarizing
selected contents.

A database is any organized collection of data. Some examples of databases you

may encounter in your daily life are:
 A telephone book
 T.V. Guide
 Airline reservation system
 Motor vehicle registration records
 Papers in your filing cabinet
 Files on your computer hard drive

4.3.1 What is data?

Data can be defined in many ways. Information science defines data as
unprocessed information.

4.3.2 What is information?

Information is data that have been organized and communicated in a coherent and
meaningful manner. Data is converted into information, and information is
converted into knowledge. Knowledge is information, which is evaluated and
organized so that it can be used purposefully.

4.3.3 Why do we need a database?

One would need a database for the following examples:
 Keep records of our:
 Clients
 Staff
 Volunteers
 To keep a record of activities and interventions;
 Keep sales records;
 Develop reports;
 Perform research

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  Longitudinal tracking

4.4 Database Models

The following is a list of database models

 Hierarchical
 Network
 Relational
 Object oriented
 Network database

4.4.1 The Hierarchical Model

Hierarchical databases are the oldest database models. Unlike other models, they
do not have a well documented history. The hierarchical database was the first
one developed and therefore was commonly used in the first mainframe database
management systems. They were developed out of the 1950's and 60's
Information Management Systems. Many banks and insurance companies, as well
as government departments and hospitals (for inventory and accounting systems)
still use them today. The hierarchical database stores data in a series of records.
These records have a set of field values attached to them. All instances of a
specific record are collected together as a "record type". It uses "Parent Child
Relationships" to create links between record types. It does this by using trees.
However, it is only able to cope with one tree. As well, there can only be one
parent per child, and no relationships among the child records are possible. As an
example, we could have a tree representing a university department, with sub
trees representing staff members, students, courses, and facilities. We could have
numerous department trees, but we could not have one employee working for
more than one department. In order to do this, we would have to create two
instances of the employee. Obviously, this would create inaccuracies when
updating information, as the information might not be the same for all records.
There is also the issue of data repetition in the various records. A hierarchical
database has a very structured form, as it allows no links between layers in

86
different branches of the tree. Therefore, it is easy to use for adding, updating and
deleting records.

Similar to an organisation chart

Think of the way we structure our personal computer files into directories and
subdirectories

Figure 4-28 Hierarchical Database

 Records are connected using ‘pointers’

 The pointer tells the system where the related record is physically stored
….. Much as a street address tells us where a particular building is ….. Or
a URL directs us to a particular webpage
 Each pointer establishes a ‘parent-child relationship’
 Parent child relationship also known as the ‘one-to-many relationship’
 One parent can have many children
 Each child can only have one parent
 (a manager is responsible for many employees but each employee has only
one manager)

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[Link] Hierarchical model example
Consider this typical business situation:-
 A customer can place many orders
 An order can contain many details

CUSTOMER

ORDER

ORDER
DETAIL

Figure 4-29 Hierarchical model

These are clearly one-to-many relationships

4.4.2 The RELATIONAL Model

(RDBMS - relational database management system) A database based on the
relational model developed by E.F. Codd. A relational database allows the
definition of data structures, storage and retrieval operations and integrity
constraints. In such a database the data and relations between them are organised
in tables. A table is a collection of records and each record in a table contains the
same fields.

[Link] Properties of Relational Tables:

 Values Are Atomic
 Each Row is Unique

88
  Column Values Are of the Same Kind
 The Sequence of Columns is Insignificant
 The Sequence of Rows is Insignificant
 Each Column Has a Unique Name

Certain fields may be designated as keys, which mean that searches for specific
values of that field will use indexing to speed them up. Where fields in two
different tables take values from the same set, a join operation can be performed
to select related records in the two tables by matching values in those fields.
Often, but not always, the fields will have the same name in both tables. For
example, an "orders" table might contain (customer-ID, product-code) pairs and a
"products" table might contain (product-code, price) pairs so to calculate a given
customer's bill you would sum the prices of all products ordered by that customer
by joining on the product-code fields of the two tables. This can be extended to
joining multiple tables on multiple fields. Because these relationships are only
specified at retrieval time, relational databases are classed as dynamic database
management system. The RELATIONAL database model is based on the
Relational Algebra.

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Figure 4-30 Relational Database

4.4.3 The Object Oriented model

According to Rao (1994), "The object-oriented database (OODB) paradigm is the

combination of object-oriented programming language (OOPL) systems and
persistent systems. The power of the OODB comes from the seamless treatment
of both persistent data, as found in databases, and transient data, as found in
executing programs."

In contrast to a relational DBMS where a complex data structure must be flattened

out to fit into tables or joined together from those tables to form the in-memory
structure, object DBMSs have no performance overhead to store or retrieve a web
or hierarchy of interrelated objects. This one-to-one mapping of object
programming language objects to database objects has two benefits over other
storage approaches: it provides higher performance management of objects, and it
enables better management of the complex interrelationships between objects.
This makes object DBMSs better suited to support applications such as financial
portfolio risk analysis systems, telecommunications service applications, World

90
Wide Web document structures, design and manufacturing systems, and hospital
patient record systems, which have complex relationships between data.
Advantages and disadvantages

The main benefit of creating a database with objects as data is speed. OODBMS
are faster than relational DBMS because data isn’t stored in relational rows and
columns but as objects. Objects have a many to many relationship and are
accessed by the use of pointers. Pointers are linked to objects to establish
relationships. Another benefit of OODBMS is that it can be programmed with
small procedural differences without affecting the entire system. This is most
helpful for those organizations that have data relationships that aren’t entirely
clear or need to change these relations to satisfy the new business requirements.
This ability to change relationships leads to another benefit which is that
relational DBMS can’t handle complex data models while OODBMS can.

Benchmarks between ODBMSs and RDBMSs have shown that an ODBMS can
be clearly superior for certain kinds of tasks. The main reason for this is that many
operations are performed using navigational rather than declarative interfaces, and
navigational access to data is usually implemented very efficiently by following
pointers.

Critics of navigational database-based technologies like ODBMS suggest that

pointer-based techniques are optimized for very specific "search routes" or
viewpoints; for general-purpose queries on the same information, pointer-based
techniques will tend to be slower and more difficult to formulate than relational.
Thus, navigation appears to simplify specific known uses at the expense of
general, unforeseen, and varied future uses. However, with suitable language
support, direct object references may be maintained in addition to normalised,
indexed aggregations, allowing both kinds of access; furthermore, a persistent
language may index aggregations on whatever its content elements return from a
call to some arbitrary object access method, rather than only on attribute value,
which allows a query to 'drill down' into complex data structures.

91
Other things that work against ODBMS seem to be the lack of interoperability
with a great number of tools/features that are taken for granted in the SQL world,
including but not limited to industry standard connectivity, reporting tools, OLAP
tools, and backup and recovery standards. Additionally, object databases lack a
formal mathematical foundation, unlike the relational model, and this in turn leads
to weaknesses in their query support. However, this objection is offset by the fact
that some ODBMSs fully support SQL in addition to navigational access, e.g.
Objectivity/SQL++, Matisse, and InterSystems CACHÉ. Effective use may
require compromises to keep both paradigms in sync.

In fact there is an intrinsic tension between the notion of encapsulation, which

hides data and makes it available only through a published set of interface
methods, and the assumption underlying much database technology, which is that
data should be accessible to queries based on data content rather than predefined
access paths. Database-centric thinking tends to view the world through a
declarative and attribute-driven viewpoint, while OOP tends to view the world
through a behavioral viewpoint, maintaining entity-identity independently of
changing attributes. This is one of the many impedance mismatch issues
surrounding OOP and databases.

4.4.4 Network Model

The network model is a database model conceived as a flexible way of

representing objects and their relationships. Its distinguishing feature is that the
schema, viewed as a graph in which object types are nodes and relationship types
are arcs, is not restricted to being a hierarchy or lattice.

The popularity of the network data model coincided with the popularity of the
hierarchical data model. Some data were more naturally modeled with more than
one parent per child. So, the network model permitted the modeling of many-to-
many relationships in data. In 1971, the Conference on Data Systems Languages
(CODASYL) formally defined the network model. The basic data modeling

92
construct in the network model is the set construct. A set consists of an owner
record type, a set name, and a member record type. A member record type can
have that role in more than one set, hence the multi-parent concept is supported.
An owner record type can also be a member or owner in another set. The data
model is a simple network, and link and intersection record types (called junction
records by IDMS) may exist, as well as sets between them. Thus, the complete
network of relationships is represented by several pair wise sets; in each set some
(one) record type is owner (at the tail of the network arrow) and one or more
record types are members (at the head of the relationship arrow). Usually, a set
defines a 1: M relationship, although 1:1 is permitted. The CODASYL network
model is based on mathematical set theory.

4.5 Database vs. File System

There are number of characteristics that differ from traditional file management
system. In file system approach, each user defines and implements the needed
files for a specific application to run. For example in sales department of an
enterprise, One user will be maintaining the details of how many sales personnel
are there in the sales department and their grades, these details will be stored and
maintained in a separate file. Another user will be maintaining the salesperson
salary details working in the concern, the detailed salary report will be stored and
maintained in a separate file. Although both of the users are interested in the
data’s of the salespersons they will be having their details in separate files and
they need different programs to manipulate their files. This will lead to wastage of
space and redundancy or replication of data’s, which may lead to confusion,
sharing of data among various users is not possible, data inconsistency may occur.
These files will not be having any inter-relationship among the data’s stored in
these files. Therefore in traditional file processing every user will be defining
their own constraints and implement the files needed for the applications.

In database approach, a single repository of data is maintained that is defined once

93
and then accessed by many users. The fundamental characteristic of database
approach is that the database system not only contains data’s but it contains
complete definition or description of the database structure and constraints. These
definitions are stored in a system catalog, which contains the information about
the structure and definitions of the database. The information stored in the catalog
is called the metadata, it describes the primary database. Hence this approach will
work on any type of database for example, insurance database, Airlines, banking
database, Finance details, and Enterprise information database. But in traditional
file processing system the application is developed for a specific purpose and they
will access specific database only.

The other main characteristic of the database is that it will allow multiple users to
access the database at the same time and sharing of data is possible. The database
must include concurrency control software to ensure that several users trying to
update the same data at the same time, it should maintain in a controlled manner.
In file system approach many programmers will be creating files over a long
period and various files have different format, in various application languages.

Therefore there is possibility of information getting duplicated, this redundancy is

storing same data multiple times leads to higher costs and wastage of space. This
may result in data inconsistency in the application; this is because update is done
to some of the files only and not all the files. Moreover in database approach
multiple views can be created. View is a tailored representation of information
contained in one or more tables. View is also called as “Virtual table” because
view does not contain physically stored records and will not occupy any space.

A multi-user database whose users have variety of applications must provide

facilities for defining multiple views. In traditional file system, if any changes are
made to the structure of the files if will affect all the programs, so changes to the
structure of a file may require changing of all programs that access the file. But in
case of database approach the structure of the database is stored separately in the
system catalog from the access of the application programs. This property is

94
known as program-data independence.

Database can be used to provide persistent storage for program objects and data
structures that resulted in object oriented database approach. Traditional systems
suffered from impedance mismatch problem and difficulty in accessing the data,
which is avoided in object oriented database system. Database can be used to
represent complex relationships among data’s as well as to retrieve and update
related data easily and efficiently.

It is possible to define and enforce integrity constraints for the data’s stored in the
database. The database also provides facilities for recovering hardware and
software failures. The backup and recovery subsystem is responsible for recovery.
It reduces the application development time considerably when compared to the
file system approach and availability of up-to-date information of all the users. It
also provides security to the data’s stored in the database system.

These differences can be summarized as follows:

Traditional File System Database System

systems suffered from impedance can be used to provide persistent
mismatch problem and difficulty in storage for program objects and data
accessing the data, which is avoided in structures that resulted in object
object oriented database system oriented database approach
Weak data integrity Better data integrity
A lot of redundant data No data redundancy
Data sharing is not possible Data sharing is possible
File-based system consists of multiple, A database management system puts
often unrelated files. data into tables, often
These may or may not be indexed. indexed and searchable
The logical structure of a database is not The logical structure of a database is
pre-determined. pre-determined
Traditional File Approach is data Database are data independence
dependence

95
A file-processing system only A database coordinates the physical
coordinates physical access to data and logical access to the data;
There is duplication A DBMS reduces the amount of data
duplication
Pre-set standards each user defines and implements the
needed files for a specific application
to run
Less secure More secure
Can not be used to represent complex Database can be used to represent
relationships among data, its difficult to complex relationships among data’s as
update data efficiently and easily. well as to retrieve and update related
data easily and efficiently.

96
 Activity 4

1. State any four differences between databases and file system [4]
2. Define the following terms
i. Hierarchical database model [2]
ii. Object oriented database model [2]
iii. Network topology [2]
iv. DBMS [2]

3. Below is a student grade database. Answer the following questions on

database fundamentals based on the example.

Name ID Grade
Alice 1 A
Bob 2 B
Cathy 3 C
Danny 4 A

i. Does this look more like a relational database or an object-oriented

database?
[2]
ii. How many records are there in the database?
[2]
iii. How many fields are there in each record?
[2]
iv. Which attribute(s) will be good as the primary key?
[2]

97
Reference:

Anahory, S. and D. Murray (1997). Data Warehousing in the Real World: A

Practical Guide for Building Decision-Support Systems. Harlow, UK, Addison-
Wesley.

ANSI (1975). ANSI/X3/SPARC Study Group on Data Base Management

Systems: Interim Report, FDT. ACM SIGMOD Bulletin 7(2).

Apte, C., B. Liu, E.P.D. Pednault and P. Smyth (2002). Business applications of
data mining. CACM 45(8): 49–53.

Atkinson, M., D. DeWitt, D. Maier, F. Bancilhon, K. Dittrich and S. Zdonik

(1990). The objectoriented database system manifesto. In W. Kim, J.-M. Nicolas
and S. Nishio (Eds), Deductive and Object-Oriented Databases. North-Holland,
Elsevier Science.

Avison, D.E. (1991). Information Systems Development: A Database Approach.

Oxford, Alfred Waller.

Bancilhon, F., C. Delobel and P. Kanellakis (Eds) (1992). Building an Object-

Oriented Database System: The Story of O2. San Mateo, CA, Morgan Kaufmann.

Berson, A. and S.J. Smith (1997). Data Warehousing, Data Mining and OLAP.
New York, McGraw- Hill.

Beynon-Davies, P. (1992). The realities of database design: the sociology,

semiology and pedagogy of database work. Journal of Information Systems 2:
207–20.

Beynon-Davies, P. (1994). Information management in the British National

Health Service: the pragmatics of strategic data planning. International Journal of
Information Management 14(2 (April)): 84–94.

Beynon-Davies, P. (2003). e-Business. Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan.

Blaha, M. and W. Premerlani (1997). Object-Oriented Modelling and Design for
Database Applications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ, Prentice-Hall.

Blaha, M.R., W.J. Premerlani and J.E. Rumbaugh (1988). Relational database
design using an object-oriented methodology. Comm. of ACM 31(4): 414–27.
Bobrowski, S.M. (1998). Oracle 8 Architecture. Berkeley, CA, Mcgraw-

Elmasri, R and Navathe, S (2004). Fundamentals of Database Systems, Fourth

Edition, Pearson Education.

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 UNIT 5

TELECOMMUNICATIONS

5 TELECOMMUNICATIONS

5.1 Aim

The reader must understand principles of telecommunications and networking

infrastructure

5.2 Objectives

 Describe the features of telecommunications networks and identify key

networking technologies.
 Identify and describe the principal technologies and standards for wireless
networking, communication, and Internet access.
 Understand the state-of-the-art in network protocols, architectures and
applications

5.3 Definition

Communications is an activity associated with distributing or exchanging

information while Telecommunications refers to the technology of
communications at a distance that permits information (today it, involves Data:
digital and analog, Voice: spoken word and Video: telecommunication imaging)
to be created any where and used everywhere with little delay. Networking refers
to the interconnection of two or more computers and/ other data transmitting
equipment (such as mobile phones, printers etc). LANs, MANs and WANs are
examples of computer networks.

The following is a simple network infrastructure to illustrate the basic network

devices.

99
Figure 5-31 Network

NIC refers to Network Interface Card. Switch and Routers are examples of
Network devices(see network devices).

5.4 Networks

Computer Networks are categorized into three: that is, LAN, MAN and WAN
 Local Area Networks (LAN)
 Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
 Wide Area Networks (WAN)

5.4.1 Local Area Network (LAN)

Small interconnected of personal computers or workstations and printers within a
building or small area up to 10 kilometers. Small group of workers that share
common application programs and communication needs. LANs are capable of
very high transmission rates (100s Mb/s to G b/s). LAN equipment is usually
owned by organization. Medium may be owned or leased from telephone
company provider or common carrier. PC or Workstation interconnected to
medium (twisted pair; fiber optics; etc) through concentrators to servers. LAN is
interconnected with other networks via switches and router/gateways. Advanced

100
LANs using circuit switching are available. ATM LANs, fibre channel baseband,
and broadband LANs are being used.

5.4.2 WANs

WANs were developed to communicate over a large geographical area (e.g. lab-
to-lab; city-to-city; east coast-to-west coast; North America-to-South America
etc). WANs require the crossing of public right of ways (under control and
regulations of the interstate commerce and institute of telephone and data
communications established by the government and international treaties). WANs
around the world rely on the infrastructure established by the telephone
companies (“common carrier”) or public switched telephone network (PSTN).
WANs consist of a number of interconnected switching. Transmission signals are
routed across the network automatically by software control to the specified
destination. The purposes of these nodes are to route messages through switching
facilities to move data from node to node to its destination. WANs originally
implemented circuit switching and packet switching technologies. Recently,
frame relay and asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) networks have been
implemented to achieve higher operating and processing speeds for the message.
WAN are owned by the common carrier in the U.S. and government in most
foreign countries. Interconnected devices, I.e. LANs or Personal Computers (PC)
or Workstation or Servers can be (usually are) privately owned by companies.

5.5 Network Topologies

Network topology refers to the way that your computer network is arranged. The
network can have a physical or a logical topology. The physical topology
describes the layout of computers and where the workstations are positioned. The
logical network topology describes how the information flows through the
network. Ring, Star, Bus, Mesh and Hybrid are examples of Network Topologies.

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5.5.1 Bus Topology

Each node is daisy-chained (connected one right after the other) along the same
backbone. Information sent from a node travels along the backbone until it
reaches its destination node. Each end of a bus network must be terminated with a
resistor.

Figure 5-32 Bus Topology

The Nodes can be computers or any other devices that are able to communicate
(share data) in a Computer Network. The Backbone is a communication media:
that is, the means of connection between the communicating devices. Twisted pair
cables, coaxial cable and fiber optic cables are good instances of communication
media.

5.5.2 Ring Topology

Similar to a bus network, rings have nodes daisy chained, but the end of the
network in a ring topology comes back around to the first node, creating a
complete circuit. Each node takes a turn sending and receiving information
through the use of a token. The token along with any data is sent from the first

102
node to the second node which extracts the data addressed to it and adds any data
it wishes to send. Then second node passes the token and data to the third node,
etc. until it comes back around to the first node again. Only the node with the
token is allowed to send data. All other nodes must wait for the token to come to
them.

Figure 5-33 Ring Topology

5.5.3 Star Topology

In a star network, each node is connected to a central device called a hub. The hub
takes a signal that comes from any node and passes it along to all the other nodes
in the network. In a star network, each node is connected to a central device called
a hub. The hub takes a signal that comes from any node and passes it along to all
the other nodes in the network.

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Figure 5-34 Star Topology

5.5.4 Hybrid network

A Star network topology can be blended with network topologies like the Ring
and to Bus topology to form a hybrid network topology.

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Figure 5-35 Hybrid Network

5.6 Basic transmission medium concepts

Medium is the physical path between transmitter and receiver in a data

transmission system. In Guided Medium, the waves are guided along a solid
medium path (twisted pair, coaxial cable, and optical fiber). In Unguided medium,
the waves are propagated through the atmosphere and inner/outer space (satellite,
laser, and wireless transmissions).

5.6.1 Medium examples by type

 Conductive: twisted pairs and coaxial cables
 Electromagnetic: microwave
 Light: lasers and optical fibers (need clear line of sight)
 Wireless – inner/outer space; satellite (Omni directional à security
issues)

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[Link] Coaxial cable
This is the widely used medium and is installed for use in business and
corporation Ethernet and other types of LANs. It consists of inter copper insulator
covered by cladding material, and then covered by an outer jacket.

Figure 5-36 Coaxial Cable

[Link].1 Applications:
 TV distribution (cable TV); long distance telephone transmission; short
run computer system links
 Local area networks

[Link].2 Transmission characteristics:

 Can transmit analog and digital signals
 Usable spectrum for analog signaling is about 400 MHz
 Amplifier needed for analog signals for less than 1 Km and less distance
for higher frequency
 Repeater needed for digital signals every Km or less distance for higher
data rates
 Operation of 100’s Mb/s over 1 Km.

[Link] Twisted Pair Cables

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Figure 5-37 Twisted Pair Cable

[Link].1 Categories of Twisted Pairs Cabling System

Table 5-2 Twisted Pair Cables

Category Maximum data Usual application

rate
CAT 1 Less than 1 analog voice (plain old telephone service) Integrated
Mbps Services Digital Network Basic Rate Interface in ISDN
Doorbell wiring
CAT 2 4 Mbps Mainly used in the IBM Cabling System for token ring
networks
CAT 3 16 Mbps Voice and data on 10BASE-T Ethernet (certify 16Mhz
signal)
CAT 4 20 Mbps Used in 16Mbps Token Ring
Otherwise not used much
CAT 5 100 Mbps 100 Mbps TPDDI
155 Mbps asynchronous transfer mode (certify 100 MHz
signal)

[Link].2 Physical description:

 Each wire with copper conductor
 Separately insulated wires

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  Twisted together to reduce cross talk
 Often bundled into cables of two or four twisted pairs
 If enclosed in a sheath then is shielded twisted pair (STP) otherwise often
for home usage unshielded twisted pair (UTP).

[Link].3 Application:
 Common in building for digital signaling used at speed of 10’s Mb/s
(CAT3) and 100Mb/s (CAT5) over 100s meters.
 Common for telephone interconnection at home and office buildings

[Link] Optical Fibers

Figure 5-38 Optic Fibre Cable

Multimode fiber is optical fiber that is designed to carry multiple light rays or
modes concurrently, each at a slightly different reflection angle within the optical
fiber core. It is used for relatively short distances because the modes tend to
disperse over longer lengths (this is called modal dispersion). For longer

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distances, single mode fiber (sometimes called monomode) fiber is used. In single
mode fiber a single ray or mode of light act as a carrier

[Link].1 Physical Description:

 Glass or plastic core of optical fiber = 2to125 µm
 Greater capacity; 2 Gb/s over 10’s of Km
 Smaller size and lighter weight
 Cladding is an insulating material
 Jacket is a protective cover
 Laser or light emitting diode provides transmission light source
 Greater repeater spacing – fewer repeaters, reduces line regeneration cost

[Link].2 Applications:
 Long distance telecommunication
 high attenuation (reduction in strength of signal) communication
environment
 Electromagnetic infested environment.

[Link] Wireless Transmission

Satellite is a microwave relay station. Satellite ground stations are aligned to the
space satellite, establishes a link, broadcast at a specified frequency. Ground
station normally operates at a number of frequencies. Satellite space antenna is
aligned to the ground station establishes a link and transmits at the specified
frequency. Satellites are capable of transmitting at multiple frequencies
simultaneously, full duplex. To avoid satellites from interfering with each other, a
4 degree separation is required for 4/6 GHz band and 3 degree for 12/14 GHz
band.

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Figure 5-39 Space Satellite

The illustration above is a space satellite. The image below is a summary of

wireless systems that can be supported by wireless routers.

Figure 5-40 Wireless Devices

[Link].1 Frequency range

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  26 GHz to 40 GHz: for microwave with highly directional beam as
possible
 30 MHz to 1 GHz: for Omni directional applications
 300MHz to 20000 GHz: for infrared spectrum; used for point to point and
multiple point application (line of sight)

[Link].2 Physical applications:

 Terrestrial microwave – long haul telecommunication service (alternative
to coaxial or optical fiber)
 Few amplifier and repeaters
 Propagation via towers located without blockage from trees, etc (towers
less than 60 miles apart)

5.7 Network Devices

Network devices are components used to connect computers or other electronic

devices together so that they can share files or resources like printers or fax
machines. Devices used to setup a Local Area Network (LAN) are the most
common type of network devices used by the public. A LAN requires a hub,
router, cabling or radio technology, network cards, and if online access is desired,
a high-speed modem.

5.7.1 Hubs

A hub is the central component place where data converges from one or more
directions and is forwarded out in one or more directions in a LAN. There are four
components in a basic wired hub network:

 Ethernet wire: This is the physical cable that links the computers
together, enabling them to communicate. The Ethernet cable, also called
twisted pair, or 10-Base T, plugs into a network card located in each
computer on the LAN.

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  Network Interface Cards (NICs): One of these cards goes into a vacant
PCI slot inside each computer. The back of the card features a port for one
end of an Ethernet cable. Newer computers normally have a networking
card built-in.
 Networking Hubs: The networking hub is a junction box with several
ports in the back for receiving the Ethernet cables that are plugged into
each computer on the LAN. With Ethernet cables going from each NIC to
the hub, all computers are connected to the hub.
 Networking Software: Most operating systems today come with
networking software built-in, but the software is also available from third
parties. The software works with the hardware to create a networking
environment on each computer, allowing the user to see shared files and
recourses. It also allows for administration of the network.

With a group of computers wired to the hub and the software installed, the
computers can talk to each other. Networking hubs will broadcast all traffic that
comes through the hub to all machines or nodes connected to the LAN. Each
computer/node on the LAN will have its own address, called a MAC (Medium
Access Control) address. Each node will ignore any traffic not addressed to its
MAC address.

Networking hubs are simple devices that are fine for home use in most cases, but
not considered optimal for workplace environments. Networking hubs can only
operate in half-duplex mode -- a computer cannot receive and send transmissions
at the same time. Another drawback is that networking hubs broadcast traffic
indiscriminately to all machines on the LAN. This opens the door to security
issues, making it easy to use so-called "packet sniffers," for instance, to snoop on
all network traffic.

5.7.2 Gateway

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A gateway is a network point that acts as an entrance to another network. On the
internet, in terms of routing, the network consists of gateway nodes and host
nodes. Host nodes are computer of network users and the computers that serve
contents (such as Web pages). Gateway nodes are computers that control traffic
within your company’s network or at your local internet service provider (ISP). A
gateway interconnects dissimilar protocols and servers, and Macintosh and IBM
LANs and equipment

5.7.3 Router

A router is a device or a software in a computer that determines the next network

point to which a packet should be forwarded toward its destination. Allow
different networks to communicate with each other. Routers create and maintain a
table of the available routes and their conditions and use this information along
with distance and cost algorithms to determine the best route for a given packet. A
packet will travel through a number of network points with routers before arriving
at its destination. A router interconnects similar networks, e.g. similar protocols
and workstations and servers

5.7.4 Bridge

A bridge is a product that connects a local area network (LAN) to another local
area network that uses the same protocol (for example, Ethernet or token ring). A
bridge examines each message on a LAN, "passing" those known to be within the
same LAN, and forwarding those known to be on the other interconnected LAN
(or LANs). A bridge interconnects two LANs that use the SAME logical link
control protocol but may use different medium access control protocols.

5.7.5 Switch
A networking switch is the central device in a wired or wireless LAN (local area
network). It receives signals from each computer on the network via Ethernet
cables in a wired network or radio waves in a wireless LAN. In both cases, the

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networking switch directs traffic across the LAN, enabling the computers to talk
to each other and share resources. It allows different nodes of a network to
communicate directly with each other. A networking switch runs in full-duplex
mode, meaning a machine on the LAN can receive and transmit data
simultaneously. This is much faster than a networking hub, an alternate device
that serves the same purpose as a switch but operates in half-duplex mode,
allowing each machine or node either to send or receive at any given time.
Another key difference between a networking switch and a hub is that the switch
sends traffic discriminately, using addresses to direct traffic packets exactly where
they are supposed to go.

5.8 Data Communication Technologies

5.8.1 Circuit Switching Technologies

Circuit switching is a dedicated communications path established between two
stations or multiple end points through nodes of the WAN. Transmission path is a
connected sequence of physical link between nodes. On each link, a logical
channel is dedicated to the connection. Data generated by the source station are
transmitted along dedicated path as rapidly as possible. At each node, incoming
data are routed or switched to the appropriate outgoing channel without excessive
delay. However, if data processing is required, some delay is experienced.

5.8.2 Packet Switching Technologies

It is not necessary (as in circuit switching) to dedicate transmission capacity along
a path through the WAN rather data are sent out in a sequence of small chucks,
called packets. Each packet, consisting of several bits is passed through the
network from node to node along some path leading from the source to the
destination. At each node along the path, the entire packet is received, stored
briefly, and then transmitted to the next node. At destination all individual packets
are assembled together to form the complete text and message from the source.
Each packet is identified as to its place in the overall text for reassembly. Packet
switching networks are commonly used for terminal-to-computer and computer-
to-computer communications.

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5.8.3 Frame Relay Techniques
Packet switching was developed at a time (1960’s) when digital long distance
transmission facilities exhibited a relatively high error rate compared to today’s
facilities. A large amount of overhead was included for error detection and
control. Each packet included additional bits and each node performed additional
processing to insure reliable transmission. Frame relay has removed the overhead
bits and additional processing. It has become unnecessary to invoke these
overhead checks and thereby enables higher capacity transmission rates. Frame
relay takes advantage of these high rates and low error rates. Frame relay
networks are designed to operate efficiently at user data rates of 2 Mb/s and
higher. (Packet switching originally designed with a 64 Kb/s data rate to the end
user). Frame relay achieves these higher rates by stripping out most of the
overhead involved with error control.

5.8.4 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

ATM also referred to as “Cell Relay” and it evolution from frame relay and
circuit switching. Frame relay uses variable length packets called “frames” but
ATM uses fixed length packets called “cells”. ATM provides little overhead for
error control like frame relay, and depends on inherent reliability of the
transmission system and on higher layers of logic in the end systems to identify
and correct errors. ATM is designed to operate in range of 10s to 100 Mb/s
compared to frame relay (2 Mb/s). ATM allows multiple virtual channels with
higher data rates for transmission paths. Each channel dynamically sets on
demand.

5.8.5 ISDN and Broadband ISDN Technology

Integrated services digital network (ISDN) was intended to be a world wide

public telecommunication network to replace existing public telecommunication
networks and deliver a wide variety of services. ISDN has standardized user
interfaces, implemented a set of digital switches and paths supporting a broad
range of traffic types and providing a value added processing service. ISDN is

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multiple networks, but integrated to provide user with single, uniform
accessibility and world wide interconnection. First generation ISDN was
narrowband, 64 Kb/s channels of switching and circuit switching orientations.
Frame relay resulted from the ISDN narrowband efforts. Second generation is
broadband ISDN. It supports high data rates of 100s Mb/s and has a packet
switching orientation.

5.9 Ethernet

A group of standards for defining a local area network that includes standards in
cabling and the structure of the data sent over those cables as well as the hardware
that connects those cables. Ethernet is a standard communications protocol
embedded in software and hardware devices, intended for building a local area
network (LAN). Ethernet networks can also be wireless. Rather than using
Ethernet cable to connect the computers, wireless NICs use radio waves for two-
way communication with a wireless switch or hub. In lieu of Ethernet ports,
wireless NICs, switches and hubs each feature a small antenna. Wireless networks
can be more flexible to use, but also require extra care in configuring security.

5.10 Understanding Network Protocols

Protocols are used for communication between computers in different computer

networks. Protocol achieves:
 What is communicated between computers?
 How it is communicated?
 When it is communicated?
 What conformance (bit sequence) between computers?
The key elements of a protocol are:
 SYNTAC: Data format and signal levels
 SEMANTICS: Control information for coordination and error
handling
 TIMING: Synchronization, speed matching, and sequencing

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The following are examples of protocols:
 WAN Protocol: TCP/IP, UDP ,SMTP, HTTP, POP3, DHCP, DNS
 LAN Protocol: Media Access Control; Contention; Token Passing

5.10.1 ISO/OSI Reference Model

 Open Systems Interconnection

 No one really uses this in the real world.
 A reference model so others can develop detailed interfaces.
 Value: The reference model defines 7 layers of functions that take place at
each end of communication and with each layer adding its own set of
special related functions.
 Flow of data through each layer at one

Application Layer
Presentation Layer
Session Layer
Transport Layer
Network Layer
Data link Layer
Physical Layer

Figure 5-41 The OSI Model

5.10.2 What is TCP/IP?

 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) – uses a set of rules to exchange

messages with other Internet points at the information packet level
 Internet Protocol (IP) – uses a set of rules to send and receive messages at
the Internet address level

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  Is the predominate network protocol in use today (Other includes OSI
Model) for interoperable architecture and the internet
 TCP/IP is a result of protocol research and development conducted on
experimental packet switched network by ARPANET funded by the
defense advanced research projects agency (DARPA). TCP/IP used as
internet standards by the internet architecture board (IAB).

[Link] TCP/IP Five Independent Levels

 Application Layer: contains the logic needed to support the various user
applications. Separate modules are required for each application.
 Host-to-host or transport Layer: collection of mechanisms in a single and
common layer
 Internet Layer: IP provides the routing functions across the multiple
networks
 Network access layer: concerned with access to and routing data across a
network for two end systems attached to the same network.
 Physical Layer: covers physical interface between PC or workstation and a
transmission medium or network

[Link] Associated TCP/IP Protocols & Services

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 HTTP This protocol, the core of the World Wide Web, facilitates retrieval
and transfer of hypertext (mixed media) documents. Stands for
the HyperText Transfer protocol
Telnet A remote terminal emulation protocol that enables clients to log
on to remote hosts on the network.
SNMP Used to remotely manage network devices. Stands for the
Simple Network Management Protocol.

DNS Provides meaningful names like [Link] for

computers to replace numerical addresses like [Link].
Stands for the Domain Name System.
SLIP/ SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol) and PPP (Point to Point
PPP Protocol) encapsulate the IP packets so that they can be sent
over a dial up phone connection to an access provider’s modem.

5.11 The Internet

The Internet was developed in 1969 for the U.S. military and eventually spread to
universities and civilian researchers. Because of its open structure, interest in its
use began to grow beyond these exclusive groups. In 1990 a scientist named Tim
Berners-Lee created a software program that he called the World Wide Web
which allowed people to find documents on the Internet much more easily. This
program allowed for the use of hyperlinks, which connect one document to
another. In 1991 commercial use of the Internet was permitted for the first time
and that is when its use started to explode. In 1994 the Netscape Communications
Company (first named Mosaic) was formed by Marc Andreeson and Jim Clark to
market a new software application for the Web called a browser. This graphical
user interface allowed users to maneuver around the Web using a point-and-click
method instead of text commands.

The Internet is best described by what it isn't. There is:

 No single computer
 No single control source
 No single entry point

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  No single type of application

The Internet consists of computers spread all over the world, connected through
wired and wireless transmission media, which contain software codes that allow
them to talk to each other. That's it. If you tried to find a single "front door" to the
Internet, you'd be looking for a long, long time.

Small businesses and individuals connect to the Internet through Internet Service
Providers (ISP) such as AT&T World Net or a commercial online service
provider such as America Online. With recent mergers in the entertainment and
Internet industries, some users can now access the Internet through their cable TV
companies

Email is the most widely used application on the Internet. America Online alone
processes an average of 51 million email messages per day, according to the CNet
Web site, April 3, 1999. The text explains the construction of an email address.
What you need to remember is that the text input is extremely sensitive, so you
must be careful when you enter an address. The best way to cut down on errors is
to store addresses in an address book and use them instead of typing in an address
every time. If you make it a habit to use the Reply function when responding to an
email, you also reduce the chance for error.

In March 1999 a malicious virus called "Melissa" was sent throughout the world
via email messages. The Computer Emergency Response Team at Carnegie
Mellon University called it one of the worst viruses ever released. It created havoc
with network servers and shut many of them down because of the tremendous
number of emails it generated. This incident demonstrated how pervasive email is
and yet how vulnerable it can be to hackers.

The most useful feature of email is the ability to attach files to an email message
and send them to colleagues anywhere in the world. This feature alone makes it a
valuable tool for telecommuters and for collaboration with co-workers wherever
they may be located.

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5.11.1 Information Retrieval on the Internet

We keep complaining about information overload, yet we crave more. The

Internet provides access to data about any topic you can imagine. Keep in mind
that false information is as readily available as true and correct information. Be
careful about the source of the information you access.

Another useful technology for collaborative work is the File Transfer Protocol
(FTP) application. Many companies and individuals use FTP to share documents
among geographic locations. It's a little faster and easier than email, but you do
need a special software program to use it. Some Web sites offer FTP as a way to
move files from a server computer to client computers.

You can get many free software programs for Internet use from various World
Wide Web sites. They are very good programs and are easily installed. In fact,
many software production companies no longer stock their programs in retail
stores and offer them only through their Web sites. This drastically reduces the
cost of distribution, packaging and shipping, and allows the company to offer the
very latest editions of their programs. It's much more convenient for consumers
too because they can just download and install the programs right to their hard
drive.

You can also use Web sites offered by software companies to download "patches"
or additional features. A patch is actually software code that fixes bugs in
programs. An excellent example of how convenient this process is demonstrated
by the Melissa virus mentioned earlier. Within 48 hours after the virus was
discovered, many companies had patches to detect the virus or protect their
system from it available through their Web sites. If we were doing business the
old-fashioned way, these patches wouldn't have been available for weeks. But
then some of you will say that if we had continued to do business the old-
fashioned way, we wouldn't have needed the patch in the first place!

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When you purchase software now, either through a regular retail outlet or on a
Web site, make sure you register with the company, because this will allow it to
send you email messages regarding new products, improved products, or patches
to existing products. You'll also be able to access its Web site for free technical
support. Yes, you do give up information when you send the registration in
electronically, but the advantages associated with the notifications and other
services may be worth it.

Many computer companies have established Web sites that offer free and quick
support for problems you may be having with their products - either hardware or
software. You don't have to spend hours on the phone waiting for a person to
answer. Most of the problems you have are probably common to other users, and
the Web sites are a better way for you to get help.

5.11.2 The World Wide Web

The World Wide Web is a vast repository of data and information connected
through hyperlinks. When you think about the fact that it didn't even exist ten
years ago, it's amazing to realize how much it has permeated everything we do in
our personal and business lives.

We discussed protocols before: these are the rules by which data are transmitted
over networks. The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (http) is what allows the Web to
operate. Universal Resource Locator (URL) address on a Web site it will always
start with [Link] Most software browser programs now automatically insert
the http for you so you can simply enter the URL address of the Web site you
want to access, beginning with the www.

Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) is the common language with which you
create Web documents. It is very easy to use and is now included in most
common software applications such as Word, WordPerfect, Excel, etc. As the
technology improves to include audio, video, animated graphics, and movies on

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Web sites, derivative languages such as Dynamic HTML, Java, and ActiveX are
becoming more common.

There is a difference between a Web site and a Web page. A Web site has the
short domain address such as [Link]. It is the central repository for
many, many Web pages that will be included at the end of the address after the
domain name and a slash. For example, [Link]/[Link] is a Web
page within the Web site for Prentice Hall. A Web page is a single document
stored within the Web site and probably linked to other pages on the site.

Webmasters, people who create and maintain Web sites, are in hot demand
because of the limited knowledge and experience most companies have with Web
sites. Software application programs such as FrontPage 98 or Macromedia
Dreamweaver can help you set up and manage a Web site. You can also use these
programs to create single pages and store them on a Web host computer. Many
Internet service providers such as America Online and Web sites such as
Geocities also give you the ability to create and store your own Web page on their
servers.

[Link] Searching for Information on the Web

The text gives you the basic information for using search engines and directories.
You need to understand and remember that the various search engines use
different methods of helping you find information on the Web. You shouldn't
restrict yourself to just one or two search engines but should try many different
ones. You may be surprised at the different results you'll get using the same topic.

Search engines use special software programs to monitor the Web for new or
updated sites or pages. When they reach a new site or page they analyze the
contents and determine the category in which it will be listed. They then add it to
their database so that it will appear on the search result list when someone enters
the appropriate subject. You can also search for FTP sites, Usenet, newswires,
business news, stock quotes, and weather using these search engine capabilities.

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If you develop a site or page you can add your URL to the search engine so it will
know your site is available. Many search engines don't require you to do this since
their software programs will eventually find your site, but you can speed up the
process by registering with the search engines.

Some innovative entrepreneurs have established businesses that will register your
site with all the search engines - over 400 of them - for a price. You can do it
yourself with your time as your cost.

When you are searching for information, try using a search site which submits
your inquiry to 25 different search engines and returns a complete list of the
results. [Link] is the most popular of these services. If you type in a topic
such as "horse breeding" on the [Link] Web site, it will submit the topic to
popular search directories and engines such as Yahoo, Excite, Lycos, Infoseek,
and HotBot. You tell the search service how you want the contents listed and in
what priority. It's much easier and faster than visiting each search engine site
yourself.

You also should be aware of the individual and business directories on the Web.
You could call them the "Yellow Pages of the World." They act just like the
Yellow Pages of your telephone book. In fact, most of the information listed in
them is gathered from telephone directories.

5.11.3 Intranets and Extranets

Net this, Net that, it's almost enough to drive you crazy! Intranets and Extranets
are basically the same thing as the Internet and use the same operating methods.
Intranets are restricted to the internal members of an organization and Extranets
are limited to certain users outside of an organization who are given special
access to the Web site. Access to Intranets and Extranets is controlled through the
use of usernames, and passwords, plus firewalls, security software programs that
keep unauthorized users out of the network.

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The beauty of Intranets and Extranets is that they don't require any special
software or hardware other than what you would use for the Internet. The easy-to-
use software programs to create Web sites and pages give more people in an
organization the ability to use these Nets for very creative purposes. Using these
'Nets can drastically reduce the costs of disseminating information to employees,
customers, and suppliers.

Suppose you are the Human Resources Manager of a mid-size company and you
are establishing a new employee 401K plan. Of course you need to get the
information out to the employees as soon as possible so they can sign up for the
plan. Many of them will have questions and will want some help computing the
benefits of their enrollment. You can quickly and easily set up a Web page that
explains how to enroll and gives them an enrollment form right on the Web. You
can have a Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) page employees can use to read
what other people are asking and also post their questions.

You can answer their questions on the FAQ page, which gives other employees
the opportunity to see the information. An especially useful tool would be to
include an online calculator to compute contributions and the rate of return on
investments. Think of the time you and the other Human Resource Office
members will save if employees can do all that on their own and don't have to
visit your office.

Extranets are becoming very popular as a way for companies to get information to
customers and suppliers quickly and efficiently. It's much less costly to put the
information on the Extranet and it's faster to update the information than to have
to print and send out paper updates. Some companies are using Extranets to
replace EDI systems. Smaller companies that couldn't afford the cost of EDI are
using Extranets as a way to allow online product ordering and shipment tracking.

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5.11.4 Advantages of internet

Communication

The foremost target of internet has always been the communication. And internet
has excelled beyond the expectations .Still; innovations are going on to make it
faster, more reliable. By the advent of computer’s Internet, our earth has reduced
and has attained the form of a global village. Now we can communicate in a
fraction of second with a person who is sitting in the other part of the world.
Today for better communication, we can avail the facilities of e-mail; we can chat
for hours with our loved ones. There are plenty messenger services in offering.
With help of such services, it has become very easy to establish a kind of global
friendship where you can share your thoughts, can explore other cultures of
different ethnicity.

Information

Information is probably the biggest advantage internet is offering. The Internet is

a virtual treasure trove of information. Any kind of information on any topic
under the sun is available on the Internet. The search engines like Google, yahoo
is at your service on the Internet. You can almost find any type of data on almost
any kind of subject that you are looking for. There is a huge amount of
information available on the internet for just about every subject known to man,
ranging from government law and services, trade fairs and conferences, market
information, new ideas and technical support, the list is end less.

Students and children are among the top users who surf the Internet for research.
Today, it is almost required that students should use the Internet for research for
the purpose of gathering resources. Teachers have started giving assignments that
require research on the Internet. Almost every coming day, researches on medical
issues become much easier to locate. Numerous web sites available on the net are
offering loads of information for people to research diseases and talk to doctors

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online at sites such as, America’s Doctor. During 1998 over 20 million people
reported going online to retrieve health information.

Entertainment

Entertainment is another popular raison d'être why many people prefer to surf the
Internet. In fact, media of internet has become quite successful in trapping
multifaceted entertainment factor. Downloading games, visiting chat rooms or
just surfing the Web are some of the uses people have discovered. There are
numerous games that may be downloaded from the Internet for free. The industry
of online gaming has tasted dramatic and phenomenal attention by game lovers.
Chat rooms are popular because users can meet new and interesting people. In
fact, the Internet has been successfully used by people to find life long partners.
When people surf the Web, there are numerous things that can be found. Music,
hobbies, news and more can be found and shared on the Internet.

Services

Many services are now provided on the internet such as online banking, job
seeking, purchasing tickets for your favorite movies, guidance services on array
of topics engulfing the every aspect of life, and hotel reservations. Often these
services are not available off-line and can cost you more.

E-Commerce

Ecommerce is the concept used for any type of commercial maneuvering, or

business deals that involves the transfer of information across the globe via
Internet. It has become a phenomenon associated with any kind of shopping,
almost anything. You name it and Ecommerce with its giant tentacles engulfing
every single product and service will make you available at your door steps. It has
got a real amazing and wide range of products from household needs, technology

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to entertainment.

5.15.5 Disadvantages

Theft of Personal information

If you use the Internet, you may be facing grave danger as your personal
information such as name, address, and credit card number etc. can be accessed
by other culprits to make your problems worse.

Spamming

Spamming refers to sending unwanted e-mails in bulk to internet users which

provide no purpose and needlessly obstruct the entire system. Such illegal
activities can be very frustrating for you, and so instead of just ignoring it, you
should make an effort to try and stop these activities so that using the Internet can
become that much safer.

Virus threat

Virus is nothing but a program which disrupts the normal functioning of your
computer systems. Computers attached to internet are more prone to virus attacks
and they can end up into crashing your whole hard disk, causing you considerable
headache.

Pornography

This is perhaps the biggest threat related to your children’s healthy mental life. It
is a very serious issue concerning the Internet. There are thousands of
pornographic sites on the Internet that can be easily found and can be a
detrimental factor to letting children use the Internet. Though, internet can also

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create havoc, destruction and its misuse can be very fatal, the advantages of it
outweigh its disadvantages

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 Activity 5

1. Take a look at the two pictures below and answer the following questions.

i. Which is the twisted pair cable and explain why? [2]

ii. Which is the coaxial cable and explain why? [2]
iii. State any two disadvantages of each. [2]
2. With the aid of fully labeled illustrations, explain the differences between Ring
and Star network topologies [8]
3. Give four disadvantages of a Star network topology. [4]

4. There are typically three ways of structuring a LAN (Local Area Network) –
star, ring and bus. Suppose there is a small LAN with 4 computers, draw a
picture to illustrate a bus topology. [2]

5. What is the difference between a bridge and a router [2]

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Reference:

Aiberto,L. Widjaja,I.(2004). Communication Networks. McGraw-Hill, New York

Berners-Lee, T. (1999). Weaving the Web: The Past, Present and Future of the
World Wide Web by its Inventor. London, Orion Business Publishing.

Bradley, A.M.(2002). Internet technologies. Heinemann Publishers. Oxford.

Bradley,R. (1999). Understanding Computer Science.4th Edition. Stanely Thomas,

Cheltenham. UK.

Dick, D.(2002) .PC Multimedia & Web, Technology and Techniques. 2nd Edition,
Dumbreck Publishing.

Stallings, W.(2004). Data and Computer Communications, 7th Edition. Pearson

Prentice Hall, New Jersey.

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 UNIT 6
COMPUTER VIRUSES

6 COMPUTER VIRUSES

6.1 Aim

The reader must understand computer viruses and their impact to computer
systems

6.2 Objectives

At the end of this unit, the reader must be able to:

 Define what computer viruses are.
 Identify the symptoms of computer viruses
 Define the possible ways to save a computer system from viruses

6.3 Computer Viruses

A computer virus is a small program written to alter the way a computer operates,
without the permission or knowledge of the user. A virus must meet two criteria:

 It must execute itself. It often places its own code in the path of execution
of another program.
 It must replicate itself. For example, it may replace other executable files
with a copy of the virus infected file. Viruses can infect desktop
computers and network servers alike.

A virus is inactive until you execute an infected program or application OR start

your computer from a disk that has infected system files. Once a virus is active, it
loads into your computer's memory and may save itself to your hard drive or
copies itself to applications or system files on disks you use.

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Some viruses are programmed specifically to damage the data on your computer
by corrupting programs, deleting files, or even erasing your entire hard drive.
Many viruses do nothing more than display a message or make sounds / verbal
comments at a certain time or a programming event after replicating themselves to
be picked up by other users one way or another. Other viruses make your
computer's system behave erratically or crash frequently. Sadly many people who
have problems or frequent crashes using their computers do not realize that they
have a virus and live with the inconveniences.

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6.3.1 Five recognized types of viruses

File infector File infector viruses infect program files. These viruses normally
viruses infect executable code, such as .com and .exe files. The can infect
other files when an infected program is run from floppy, hard
drive, or from the network. Many of these viruses are memory
resident. After memory becomes infected, any noninfected
executable that runs becomes infected. Examples of known file
infector viruses include Jerusalem and Cascade.
Boot sector Boot sector viruses infect the system area of a disk; that is, the
viruses boot record on floppy disks and hard disks. All floppy disks and
hard disks (including disks containing only data) contain a small
program in the boot record that is run when the computer starts
up. Boot sector viruses attach themselves to this part of the disk
and activate when the user attempts to start up from the infected
disk. These viruses are always memory resident in nature. Most
were written for DOS, but, all PCs, regardless of the operating
system, are potential targets of this type of virus. All that is
required to become infected is to attempt to start up your
computer with an infected floppy disk Thereafter, while the virus
remains in memory, all floppy disks that are not write protected
will become infected when the floppy disk is accessed. Examples
of boot sector viruses are Form, Disk Killer, Michelangelo, and
Stoned.
Master boot Master boot record viruses are memory-resident viruses that infect
record viruses disks in the same manner as boot sector viruses. The difference
between these two virus types is where the viral code is located.
Master boot record infectors normally save a legitimate copy of
the master boot record in an different location. Windows NT
computers that become infected by either boot sector viruses or
master boot sector viruses will not boot. This is due to the
difference in how the operating system accesses its boot
information, as compared to Windows 98/Me. If your Windows
NT systems is formatted with FAT partitions you can usually
remove the virus by booting to DOS and using antivirus software.
If the boot partition is NTFS, the system must be recovered by
using the three Windows NT Setup disks. Examples of master
boot record infectors are NYB, AntiExe, and Unashamed.
Multipartite Multipartite (also known as polypartite) viruses infect both boot
viruses records and program files. These are particularly difficult to
repair. If the boot area is cleaned, but the files are not, the boot
area will be reinfected. The same holds true for cleaning infected
files. If the virus is not removed from the boot area, any files that
you have cleaned will be reinfected. Examples of multipartite

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 viruses include One_Half, Emperor, Anthrax and Tequilla.
Macro viruses These types of viruses infect data files. They are the most
common and have cost corporations the most money and time
trying to repair. With the advent of Visual Basic in Microsoft's
Office 97, a macro virus can be written that not only infects data
files, but also can infect other files as well. Macro viruses infect
Microsoft Office Word, Excel, PowerPoint and Access files.
Newer strains are now turning up in other programs as well. All of
these viruses use another program's internal programming
language, which was created to allow users to automate certain
tasks within that program. Because of the ease with which these
viruses can be created, there are now thousands of them in
circulation. Examples of macro viruses include [Link],
[Link] and [Link].

6.3.2 What is a Trojan horse?

Trojan horses are impostors—files that claim to be something desirable but, in

fact, are malicious. A very important distinction between Trojan horse programs
and true viruses is that they do not replicate themselves. Trojan horses contain
malicious code that when triggered cause loss, or even theft, of data. For a Trojan
horse to spread, you must invite these programs onto your computers; for
example, by opening an email attachment or downloading and running a file from
the Internet.

6.3.3 What is a worm?

Worms are programs that replicate themselves from system to system without the
use of a host file. This is in contrast to viruses, which requires the spreading of an
infected host file. Although worms generally exist inside of other files, often
Word or Excel documents, there is a difference between how worms and viruses
use the host file. Usually the worm will release a document that already has the
"worm" macro inside the document. The entire document will travel from
computer to computer, so the entire document should be considered the worm
[Link]@mm is an example of a worm

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6.3.4 What is a virus hoax?

Virus hoaxes are messages, almost always sent by email, that amount to little more
than chain letters. Following are some of the common phrases that are used in
these hoaxes:

 If you receive an email titled [email virus hoax name here], do not open it!
 Delete it immediately!
 It contains the [hoax name] virus.
 It will delete everything on your hard drive and [extreme and improbable
danger specified here].
 This virus was announced today by [reputable organization name here].
 Forward this warning to everyone you know!

Most virus hoax warnings do not deviate far from this pattern. If you are unsure if
a virus warning is legitimate or a hoax, additional information is available at the
Symantec Security Response online database.

6.3.5 Symptoms of a Computer Virus

If you suspect or confirm that your computer is infected with a computer virus,
obtain the current antivirus software. The following are some primary indicators
that a computer may be infected:

 The computer runs slower than usual.

 The computer stops responding, or it locks up frequently.
 The computer crashes, and then it restarts every few minutes.
 The computer restarts on its own. Additionally, the computer does not run
as usual.
 Applications on the computer do not work correctly.
 Disks or disk drives are inaccessible.
 You cannot print items correctly.

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  You see unusual error messages.
 You see distorted menus and dialog boxes.
 There is a double extension on an attachment that you recently opened,
such as a .jpg, .vbs, .gif, or .exe. extension.
 An antivirus program is disabled for no reason. Additionally, the antivirus
program cannot be restarted.
 An antivirus program cannot be installed on the computer, or the antivirus
program will not run.
 New icons appear on the desktop that you did not put there, or the icons
are not associated with any recently installed programs.
 Strange sounds or music plays from the speakers unexpectedly.
 A program disappears from the computer even though you did not
intentionally remove the program.

When a computer virus infects e-mail messages or infects other files on a

computer, you may notice the following symptoms:

 The infected file may make copies of itself. This behavior may use up all
the free space on the hard disk.
 A copy of the infected file may be sent to all the addresses in an e-mail
address list.
 The computer virus may reformat the hard disk. This behavior will delete
files and programs.
 The computer virus may install hidden programs, such as pirated software.
This pirated software may then be distributed and sold from the computer.
 The computer virus may reduce security. This could enable intruders to
remotely access the computer or the network.
 You receive an e-mail message that has a strange attachment. When you
open the attachment, dialog boxes appear, or a sudden degradation in
system performance occurs.
 Someone tells you that they have recently received e-mail messages from
you that contained attached files that you did not send. The files that are

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 attached to the e-mail messages have extensions such as .exe, .bat, .scr,
and .vbs extensions.

6.3.6 Symptoms that may be the result of ordinary Windows functions

A computer virus infection may cause the following problems:

 Windows does not start even though you have not made any system
changes or even though you have not installed or removed any programs.
 There is frequent modem activity. If you have an external modem, you
may notice the lights blinking frequently when the modem is not being
used. You may be unknowingly supplying pirated software.
 Windows does not start because certain important system files are
missing. Additionally, you receive an error message that lists the missing
files.
 The computer sometimes starts as expected. However, at other times, the
computer stops responding before the desktop icons and the taskbar
appear.
 The computer runs very slowly. Additionally, the computer takes longer
than expected to start.
 You receive out-of-memory error messages even though the computer has
sufficient RAM.
 New programs are installed incorrectly.
 Windows spontaneously restarts unexpectedly.
 Programs that used to run stop responding frequently. Even if you remove
and reinstall the programs, the issue continues to occur.
 A disk utility such as Scandisk reports multiple serious disk errors.
 A partition disappears.
 The computer always stops responding when you try to use Microsoft
Office products.
 You cannot start Windows Task Manager.
 Antivirus software indicates that a computer virus is present.

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6.3.7 What Viruses Don't Do!

Computer viruses can not infect write protected disks or infect written documents.
Viruses do not infect compressed files, unless the file was infected prior to the
compression. [Compressed files are programs or files with its common characters,
etc. removed to take up less space on a disk.] Viruses do not infect computer
hardware, such as monitors or computer chips; they only infect software.

In addition, Macintosh viruses do not infect DOS / Window computer software

and vice versa. For example, the Melissa virus incident of late 1998 and the
ILOVEYOU virus of 2000 worked only on Window based machines and could
not operate on Macintosh computers.

One further note-> viruses do not necessarily let you know they are present in
your machine, even after being destructive. If your computer is not operating
properly, it is a good practice to check for viruses with a current "virus checking"
program.

6.3.8 How do Viruses Spread?

Viruses begin to work and spread when you start up the program or application of
which the virus is present. For example, a word processing program that contains
a virus will place the virus in memory every time the word processing program is
run.

Once in memory, one of a number of things can happen. The virus may be
programmed to attach to other applications, disks or folders. It may infect a
network if given the opportunity.

Viruses behave in different ways. Some viruses stay active only when the
application it is part of is running. Turn the computer off and the virus is inactive.
Other viruses will operate every time you turn on your computer after infecting a
system file or network.

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6.3.9 How to Prevent a Virus Invasion!

1. Load only software from original disks or CD's. Pirated or copied software
is always a risk for a virus.
2. Execute only programs of which you are familiar as to their origin.
Programs sent by email should always be suspicious.
3. Computer uploads and "system configuration" changes should always be
performed by the person who is responsible for the computer. Password
protection should be employed.
4. Check all shareware and free programs downloaded from on-line services
with a virus checking program.
5. Purchase a virus program that runs as you boot or work your computer.
Up-date it frequently.
6. On the computer, turn on the firewall.
7. Keep the computer operating system up-to-date.
8. Use updated anti-spyware software on the computer.

6.3.10 How to remove a computer virus

Even for an expert, removing a computer virus can be a difficult task without the
help of computer virus removal tools. Some computer viruses and other unwanted
software, such as spyware, even reinstall themselves after the viruses have been
detected and removed. Fortunately, by updating the computer and by using
antivirus tools, you can help permanently remove unwanted software.
To remove a computer virus, follow these steps:

1. Install the latest updates from Microsoft Update on the computer.

2. Update the antivirus software on the computer. Then, perform a thorough
scan of the computer by using the antivirus software.
3. Download, install, and then run the Microsoft Malicious Software
Removal Tool to remove existing viruses on the computer. To download

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the Malicious Software Removal Tool, visit the following Microsoft Web
site:

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 Activity 6

A computer virus is a program

i. Give any two examples [2]
ii. Explain how they infect an executable program [2]
iii. How can we safeguard computers from viruses? [3]
iv. How do viruses propagate? [3]

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 REFERENCE

Bradley,R. (1999). Understanding Computer Science.4th Edition. Stanely Thomas,

Cheltenham. UK.

[Link]

[Link]

[Link]

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 Glossary

Attribute: is a property or feature or characteristic of an entity

Backbone: the main cabling of a network that all of the segment connect to.
Usually, the backbone is capable of carrying more information than the individual
segments.

Bandwidth – bandwidth or signal is constrained by the transmitter and the nature

of the transmission in cycles per second or hertz

Baud (don’t really use anymore; not accurate) = one electronic state change per
second

Bit: binary digit, either 0 or 1

Bit rate – a method for measuring data transmission speed – bits per second

Database Layout: a design for a database that contains field names and possibly
graphics

Data rate – bits per second in data communications

Entity: a physical object or real world thing that bears a name and associated
characteristics

Error rate – rate at which errors occur where error in 1 or 0 bit occurs

Field: one category of information, i.e., Name, Address, Semester Grade,

Academic topic. It can also be referred to as a collection of related attributes e.g.
name

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File: A group or collection of similar records, like INST6031 Fall Student File,
American History 1850-1866 file, Basic Food Group Nutrition File

Gbps – Billion bits per second (data speed)

Full-duplex: information flows in two directions at the same time

Half-duplex: information flows in two directions, but only in one direction at a

time.
Mb – million bits (quantity of data)

MB – million bytes (quantity of data)

Mbps – millions of bits per second (data speed; measure of bandwidth = total
information flow over a given time) on a telecommunication medium

Network: is a group of computers connected together to allow information

sharing

Node: anything connected to the network, usually a computer, but it could be a

printer or a scanner

Noise – Average level of noise over the communication path.

Record book: a "rolodex" of data records, like address lists, inventory lists,
classes or thematic units, or groupings of other unique records that are combined
into one list (found in AppleWorks, FileMaker Pro software).

Record / tuple : one piece of data, i.e., one student's information, a recipe, a test
question. It is a collection of attributes that belongs to the same entity.

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Relation: is a table in relational database system.

Segment: any portion of a network that is separated by a switch, bridge or a

router from another part of a network.

Simplex: information flows in only one direction

Teraflops – trillion operations per second

Topology: The way each node is physically connected to the network

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