KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, KUMASI

DEPARTMENT OF MARKETING & CORPORATE STRATEGY

Pre-Exams Tutorial, 2025/2026
SYMBOLIC AND CATEGORICAL LOGIC
1. In the Universal Affirmative (A) categorical statement ‘All S are P,’ which term(s) are
distributed?
A. Both S and P
B. Neither S nor P
C. S only
D. P only
E. S and P are distributed only if the syllogism is valid
2. The term that appears in both premises of a categorical syllogism but does NOT appear
in the conclusion, functioning as the logical link between the major and minor premises, is
called the:
A. Major term
B. Minor term
C. Predicate term
D. Middle term
E. Subject term
3. In the Universal Negative (E) categorical statement ‘No S are P,’ which term(s) are
distributed?
A. S only
B. P only
C. Both S and P
D. Neither S nor P
E. Distribution depends on the syllogism’s figure
4. In the Particular Affirmative (I) categorical statement ‘Some S are P,’ which term(s) are
distributed?
A. Both S and P
B. S only
C. P only
D. Neither S nor P
E. Only the middle term, if one is present
5. In the Particular Negative (O) categorical statement ‘Some S are not P,’ which term is
distributed?
A. S only
B. P only
C. Both S and P
D. Neither term
 E. The middle term only
6. When testing a categorical syllogism with Venn diagrams, a region that is shaded
(blacked out) represents that:
A. An X should be placed there instead
B. The region contains an unknown number of members
C. At least one member exists in that region
D. That region is empty — no members exist there
E. The premises are undecidable for that region
7. Under the modern (Boolean) interpretation of categorical logic, a Universal Affirmative
statement such as ‘All trespassers will be prosecuted’ asserts:
A. That trespassers definitely exist and will be prosecuted
B. Only a conditional relationship — if something is a trespasser, it will be prosecuted —
without asserting that trespassers exist
C. That at least one trespasser exists
D. Nothing whatsoever about prosecution
E. That the statement is necessarily a tautology
8. The statement ‘Some contracts signed under duress are not upheld in court’ is best
classified in categorical logic as:
A. A — All contracts signed under duress are upheld
B. E — No contracts signed under duress are upheld
C. I — Some contracts signed under duress are upheld
D. O — Some contracts signed under duress are not upheld
E. A — All upheld contracts were signed under duress
9. The statement form ‘No S are P’ asserts that:
A. Every member of S is a member of P
B. At least one member of S is a member of P
C. At least one member of S is not a member of P
D. Not a single member of S is a member of P — the classes are entirely exclusive
E. Every member of P is a member of S
10. Contraposition (replacing the subject and predicate with their complements and
reversing their order) yields a logically equivalent statement for which categorical
statement types?
A. A and E only
B. A and O only
C. E and I only
D. I and O only
E. All four (A, E, I, O)
11. A syllogism’s major term is distributed in the conclusion but is undistributed in the
major premise. This formal fallacy is called:
A. Undistributed middle
B. Illicit major
C. Illicit minor
D. Exclusive premises
E. Existential fallacy
12. Consider: ‘All sharks are fish. All tuna are fish. Therefore, all sharks are tuna.’ The
middle term ‘fish’ is undistributed in both premises. This formal fallacy is known as:
A. Illicit major
B. Illicit minor
C. Undistributed middle
D. Four-term fallacy
E. Exclusive premises
13. Consider the sorites: ‘All startups seeking venture capital undergo due diligence. All
firms that undergo due diligence disclose financial statements. All firms that disclose
financial statements are subject to audit. Therefore, all startups seeking venture capital are
subject to audit.’ This chain of reasoning is:
A. Invalid — it commits the fallacy of the undistributed middle
B. Invalid — it involves four terms instead of three
C. Valid — each link functions as a Universal Affirmative (A) syllogism, and the chain
preserves validity throughout
D. Invalid — sorites arguments can never be valid
E. Valid, but only if existential import is assumed
14. On the modern Boolean interpretation, a categorical syllogism with two universal
premises (A or E) and a particular conclusion (I or O) is:
A. Always valid, since particular statements are logically weaker than universal ones
B. Always invalid — this commits the existential fallacy, since universal premises alone
cannot establish that something exists
C. Valid only in the first figure
D. Valid only if the middle term is distributed
E. Valid provided the conclusion is negative
15. In categorical syllogism theory, the ‘figure’ of a syllogism is determined by:
A. Whether its statements are Universal or Particular
B. The total number of terms in the argument
C. The position of the middle term within the major and minor premises
D. Whether the conclusion is affirmative or negative
E. The number of premises used
16. A truth table for a compound statement involving four distinct propositions (P, Q, R,
and S) will have how many rows?
A. 8 rows
B. 12 rows
C. 16 rows
D. 20 rows
E. 32 rows
17. The conditional P → Q is logically equivalent to which of the following disjunctive
expressions?
A. P ∨ Q
B. ¬P ∨ Q
C. P ∨ ¬Q
D. ¬P ∨ ¬Q
E. ¬(P ∨ Q)
18. The biconditional statement P ↔ Q is true under exactly which condition?
A. Whenever P is true, regardless of Q
B. Only when both P and Q are false
C. Only when P and Q share the same truth value (both true or both false)
D. Only when P is true and Q is false
E. Whenever at least one of P or Q is true
19. A compound statement that comes out TRUE on every row of its truth table, regardless
of the truth values assigned to its components, is called a:
A. Contingency
B. Contradiction
C. Tautology
D. Sound argument
E. Valid disjunction
20. A compound statement that comes out FALSE on every row of its truth table,
regardless of the truth values assigned to its components, is called a:
A. Tautology
B. Contingency
C. Contradiction
D. Biconditional
E. Antilogism
21. A statement whose truth value varies — true on some rows and false on others of its
truth table — is called:
A. A tautology
B. A contradiction
 C. A contingent statement
D. An invalid statement
E. An unsound statement
22. By De Morgan’s Law, ¬(P ∧ Q) is logically equivalent to:
A. ¬P ∧ ¬Q
B. P ∨ Q
C. ¬P ∨ ¬Q
D. P ∧ ¬Q
E. ¬P ∧ Q
23. By De Morgan’s Law, ¬(P ∨ Q) is logically equivalent to:
A. ¬P ∨ ¬Q
B. ¬P ∧ ¬Q
C. P ∧ Q
D. ¬P ∨ Q
E. P ∨ ¬Q
24. The contrapositive of the conditional P → Q is:
A. Q → P
B. ¬P → ¬Q
C. ¬Q → ¬P
D. Q → ¬P
E. ¬P → Q
25. The converse of P → Q is Q → P. Which statement correctly describes the logical
relationship between a conditional and its converse?
A. They are always logically equivalent
B. They are equivalent only when P and Q are both true
C. They are not generally equivalent; the converse can be false even when the original
conditional is true
D. The converse is the negation of the original
E. The converse is always a tautology
26. The inverse of P → Q is ¬P → ¬Q. This inverse is logically equivalent to which of the
following?
A. The original conditional P → Q
B. The contrapositive ¬Q → ¬P
C. The converse Q → P
D. The negation ¬(P → Q)
E. The biconditional P ↔ Q
27. If the antecedent of a conditional statement P → Q is FALSE, the truth value of the
entire conditional is:
A. Always false
B. Always true, regardless of Q’s truth value
C. Dependent entirely on the truth value of Q
D. Undetermined
E. False only if Q is also false
28. Which symbolic translation correctly captures ‘The firm will expand only if it secures
additional financing’ (E = the firm expands; F = it secures additional financing)?
A. F → E
B. E → F
C. E ∧ F
D. E ↔ F
E. ¬F → E
29. Which symbolic translation correctly captures ‘The project will fail unless the team
meets the deadline’ (F = the project fails; M = the team meets the deadline)?
A. F → M
B. M → F
C. ¬M → F
D. F ∧ M
E. F ↔ M
30. For a disjunction of four propositions (P ∨ Q ∨ R ∨ S) to be FALSE, which condition
must hold?
A. At least one must be true
B. Exactly two must be false
C. All four must be false
D. Exactly one must be true
E. At least three must be false
31. Which argument form is illustrated by: ‘If the central bank raises interest rates,
inflation will fall. The central bank raised interest rates. Therefore, inflation will fall.’?
A. Modus Tollens
B. Modus Ponens
C. Hypothetical Syllogism
D. Affirming the Consequent
E. Disjunctive Syllogism
32. ‘If the merger is approved, share prices will rise. Share prices did not rise. Therefore,
the merger was not approved.’ This argument is an example of:
A. Modus Ponens
 B. Denying the Antecedent
C. Modus Tollens
D. Hypothetical Syllogism
E. Affirming the Consequent
33. ‘If exports increase, foreign reserves rise. If foreign reserves rise, the currency
strengthens. Therefore, if exports increase, the currency strengthens.’ This valid form is
called:
A. Modus Ponens
B. Modus Tollens
C. Hypothetical Syllogism
D. Constructive Dilemma
E. Disjunctive Syllogism
34. ‘Either the firm cuts costs or it raises prices. It will not cut costs. Therefore, it will raise
prices.’ This valid inference pattern is:
A. Modus Tollens
B. Constructive Dilemma
C. Hypothetical Syllogism
D. Disjunctive Syllogism
E. Modus Ponens
35. ‘Either the company diversifies or it consolidates. If it diversifies, it will incur new risk.
If it consolidates, it will incur restructuring costs. Therefore, it will incur either new risk or
restructuring costs.’ This argument form is:
A. Destructive Dilemma
B. Constructive Dilemma
C. Hypothetical Syllogism
D. Disjunctive Syllogism
E. Modus Tollens
36. ‘If the policy is enacted, unemployment falls. If the subsidy is granted, inflation rises.
Either unemployment does not fall, or inflation does not rise. Therefore, either the policy is
not enacted, or the subsidy is not granted.’ This valid form is known as:
A. Constructive Dilemma
B. Destructive Dilemma
C. Modus Tollens
D. Hypothetical Syllogism
E. Disjunctive Syllogism
37. Which of the following symbolic argument forms commits the fallacy of Affirming the
Consequent?
A. P → Q; ¬Q; therefore ¬P
 B. P → Q; P; therefore Q
C. P → Q; Q; therefore P
D. P ∨ Q; ¬P; therefore Q
E. P → Q; Q → R; therefore P → R
38. Which symbolic argument form commits the fallacy of Denying the Antecedent?
A. P → Q; ¬P; therefore ¬Q
B. P → Q; P; therefore Q
C. P → Q; ¬Q; therefore ¬P
D. P → Q; Q; therefore P
E. P ∨ Q; ¬Q; therefore P
39. Given the premises ‘(A ∧ B) → C’ and ‘¬C’, which conclusion follows validly by Modus
Tollens?
A. A ∧ B
B. ¬A ∧ ¬B
C. ¬(A ∧ B)
D. A ∨ B
E. ¬A ∨ B
40. To demonstrate that the argument form ‘P → Q; Q; therefore P’ is invalid using a truth
table, one must find a row where:
A. P is true, Q is true, and the conclusion is also true
B. Both premises (P → Q and Q) are true, but the conclusion P is false
C. P → Q is false, but Q is true
D. Both premises are false
E. Q is false and P is true
41. ‘The firm will either list on the stock exchange or seek private equity funding. The firm
sought private equity funding. Therefore, it will not list on the stock exchange.’ Assuming
the disjunction is the standard INCLUSIVE ‘or’ of propositional logic, this inference is:
A. Valid — it is a correct application of Disjunctive Syllogism
B. Valid — it correctly denies one disjunct
C. Invalid — it commits the fallacy of affirming a disjunct, since an inclusive ‘or’
permits both options to hold simultaneously
D. Invalid — it incorrectly applies Modus Tollens
E. Valid, provided the two options are mutually exclusive
42. An argument is ‘sound’ if and only if:
A. It is valid, regardless of the truth of its premises
B. Its premises are true, regardless of its validity
C. It is valid AND all of its premises are actually true
D. It has a true conclusion, regardless of its logical structure
 E. It commits no formal fallacies, even if some premises are false
43. A fallacy that arises purely from the logical STRUCTURE of an argument
(independent of its specific content) — such as affirming the consequent — is classified as
a:
A. Informal fallacy
B. Formal fallacy
C. Rhetorical fallacy
D. Fallacy of relevance
E. Fallacy of ambiguity
44. A proof strategy that assumes the negation of the claim one wishes to prove, derives a
contradiction from that assumption, and thereby concludes the original claim must be true,
is called:
A. Modus Tollens
B. Constructive Dilemma
C. Reductio ad absurdum (indirect proof)
D. Hypothetical Syllogism
E. Universal Instantiation
45. A central bank governor argues: ‘Either we raise the policy rate or we maintain it. If
we raise it, borrowing costs increase. If we maintain it, currency depreciation continues.
Therefore, either borrowing costs increase or currency depreciation continues.’ Assuming
all premises are true, this argument is:
A. Invalid, because it conflates the middle and major terms
B. Valid, and it exemplifies a Constructive Dilemma
C. Invalid, because it commits the fallacy of affirming the consequent
D. Valid, but only as a Hypothetical Syllogism
E. Invalid, because dilemmas are always fallacious
46. A hospitality analyst argues: ‘If hotel occupancy rates rise, revenue per available room
increases. Revenue per available room has increased. Therefore, hotel occupancy rates
rose.’ Which fallacy, if any, does this argument commit?
A. No fallacy — it validly applies Modus Ponens
B. Affirming the Consequent — revenue could have risen due to higher room rates rather
than higher occupancy
C. Denying the Antecedent
D. Undistributed Middle
E. No fallacy — it validly applies Modus Tollens
47. A regulator claims: ‘All banks that meet capital adequacy requirements pass the stress
test. Bank XYZ passed the stress test.’ She concludes: ‘Bank XYZ meets capital adequacy
requirements.’ This reasoning is:
A. Valid — it applies Modus Ponens correctly
 B. Valid — it correctly distributes the middle term
C. Invalid — it commits the fallacy of Affirming the Consequent (equivalently, an illicit
conversion of the Universal Affirmative premise)
D. Valid — Hypothetical Syllogism supports the conclusion
E. Invalid — it commits Denying the Antecedent
48. Let R = ‘A firm receives a credit rating downgrade’ and B = ‘The firm’s borrowing
costs rise’. An analyst claims: ‘If R then B. Borrowing costs did NOT rise. Therefore, the
firm was NOT downgraded.’ Which symbolic form correctly represents this argument, and
is it valid?
A. R ∧ B; ¬R; therefore ¬B — invalid
B. R → B; R; therefore B — valid (Modus Ponens)
C. R ∨ B; ¬R; therefore B — valid (Disjunctive Syllogism)
D. R → B; ¬B; therefore ¬R — valid (Modus Tollens)
E. R → B; B; therefore R — invalid (Affirming the Consequent)
49. A logistics coordinator reasons: ‘Either the shipment goes by sea or by air. Rising fuel
surcharges rule out sea freight this quarter. Therefore, the shipment must go by air.’
Which argument form supports this conclusion?
A. Modus Ponens
B. Modus Tollens
C. Hypothetical Syllogism
D. Disjunctive Syllogism
E. Constructive Dilemma
50. An auditor argues: ‘All firms that falsify accounts violate securities law. No firm that
violates securities law retains its stock exchange listing.’ She concludes: ‘No firm that
falsifies accounts retains its stock exchange listing.’ Beyond correctly classifying the
conclusion as Universal Negative (E), which additional check confirms this syllogism’s
VALIDITY?
A. The middle term (‘violates securities law’) is distributed in at least one premise, and
no term is distributed in the conclusion unless it was already distributed in its premise
B. The conclusion must always match the quality of the first premise
C. Both premises must be particular for the syllogism to be valid
D. The middle term must appear in the conclusion
E. Validity requires at least one affirmative premise
51. Let M = ‘The market expands’ and H = ‘The company hires more staff’. Consider the
compound statement (M ∧ ¬H) → ¬M. In the row where M is TRUE and H is FALSE,
what is the truth value of this compound statement?
A. True, because a conditional is true whenever its antecedent is true
B. False, because the antecedent (M ∧ ¬H) is true while the consequent ¬M is false
C. True, because ¬H makes the whole expression vacuously true
D. Undetermined without knowing further variables
 E. False, because M and ¬H cannot both be true simultaneously
52. A central bank’s model states: ‘If inflation exceeds target (I), the bank raises rates (R).
If the bank raises rates, credit growth slows (C). If credit growth slows, aggregate demand
falls (D).’ Which conclusion follows validly by repeated Hypothetical Syllogism?
A. If inflation exceeds target, aggregate demand falls
B. If aggregate demand falls, inflation exceeds target
C. If credit growth slows, inflation exceeds target
D. Inflation exceeds target if and only if aggregate demand falls
E. No valid conclusion follows without additional premises
53. A quality control manager states: ‘Some batches that fail the first inspection pass the
second inspection.’ Which categorical form does this represent, and which class is the
grammatical subject?
A. Universal Affirmative (A); subject = batches that pass the second inspection
B. Particular Affirmative (I); subject = batches that fail the first inspection
C. Particular Negative (O); subject = batches that pass the second inspection
D. Universal Negative (E); subject = batches that fail the first inspection
E. Particular Affirmative (I); subject = batches that pass the second inspection
54. An entrepreneur argues: ‘If I secure Series A funding (F), I will hire a CTO (H). I did
hire a CTO. Therefore, I secured Series A funding.’ Which best evaluates this reasoning?
A. Valid — Modus Ponens
B. Valid — Modus Tollens
C. Invalid — Denying the Antecedent
D. Invalid — Affirming the Consequent, since hiring a CTO could result from other
funding sources
E. Valid — Hypothetical Syllogism
55. A firm’s policy states: ‘No shipment insured under Policy X is eligible for expedited
customs clearance.’ A given shipment is confirmed to be insured under Policy X. To test
the conclusion ‘this shipment is not eligible for expedited clearance’ using a Venn diagram,
the correct procedure is to:
A. Place an X in the overlapping region of the two circles
B. Shade the entire ‘expedited clearance’ circle
C. Shade the overlapping region of the ‘Policy X’ and ‘expedited clearance’ circles
(representing the E-statement), which forces the shipment to fall entirely outside
‘expedited clearance’ — confirming validity
D. Leave both circles unshaded, since only particular statements permit diagramming
E. Place an X outside both circles entirely
56. Let A = ‘The advertising campaign succeeds’ and S = ‘The product reaches its market
share target’. Consider the statement (A → S) ∧ (A ∧ ¬S). Is this statement a tautology,
contradiction, or contingency?
 A. Tautology — it is always true
B. Contingency — true in some rows, false in others
C. Contradiction — it is false in every row, since asserting A → S while also asserting A
∧ ¬S is logically inconsistent
D. Contingency, but only when A is false
E. Tautology, because ¬S guarantees the conditional is vacuously true
57. A compliance officer first argues correctly: ‘Every regulated firm (R) must submit
quarterly disclosures (Q); formally, R → Q. Our firm is regulated: R. Therefore Q.’
Suppose she instead argued: ‘Our firm submits quarterly disclosures: Q. Therefore our
firm is regulated: R.’ Which best describes this second argument?
A. Valid — Modus Ponens
B. Invalid — Affirming the Consequent; a firm might submit disclosures voluntarily
without being subject to the regulation
C. Valid — Modus Tollens
D. Valid, because R → Q entails Q → R
E. Invalid — Denying the Antecedent
58. A recruitment consultant observes: ‘It is not the case that all candidates with
postgraduate degrees are offered senior roles.’ Which categorical form and symbolic
translation correctly captures this (P = postgraduate degree holder; O = offered a senior
role)?
A. E-form: No P are O
B. A-form: All P are O
C. I-form: Some P are O
D. O-form: Some P are not O — since negating a Universal Affirmative (A) statement is
logically equivalent to asserting the corresponding Particular Negative (O) statement
E. O-form: Some O are not P
59. A project manager states ‘(B ∧ T ∧ C) → L’, where B = budget approved, T = team
assembled, C = contractor confirmed, and L = project launches. If B is TRUE, T is TRUE,
and C is FALSE, what is the truth value of the whole conditional, and why?
A. False, because L must be checked independently before determining the conditional’s
value
B. True, because the antecedent (B ∧ T ∧ C) is false — since C is false — making the
conditional vacuously true regardless of L
C. False, because two out of three conjuncts are true
D. Undetermined without knowing L
E. True only if L is also true
60. A conglomerate’s board reasons: ‘Either the firm divests its loss-making subsidiary (D),
retains it with restructuring (R), or liquidates entirely (L) — a three-way disjunction. The
board rules out liquidation (¬L) on ethical grounds and further rules out divestment (¬D)
due to buyer scarcity.’ Which valid inference correctly identifies the board’s remaining
course of action?
A. Modus Ponens: therefore, R is affirmed directly
B. Disjunctive Syllogism (applied twice): eliminating L and then D from the three-way
disjunction leaves R as the only remaining option
C. Hypothetical Syllogism: chaining three conditionals together
D. Constructive Dilemma: combining all three conditionals into a single disjunctive
conclusion
E. The reasoning is invalid, since disjunctive syllogism only applies to two-option
disjunctions

E.B. Ameza-xemalordzo