BASIC

HYDRAULICS
 Flow

Flow in a hydraulic system is produced from a positive displacement pump. This is

different from a centrifugal pump, which is not positive displacement. There are three
important principles that must be understood relating to flow in a hydraulic system.

Principle one: Flow makes it go. For anything to move in a hydraulic system the actuator
must be supplied with flow. This cylinder is retracted. It can extend only if there is flow into
port B. Shifting the directional control valve will send flow to either extend or retract the
cylinder.

Principle two: Rate of flow determines speed. Rate of flow is usually measured in gpm or
gpm. Gpm is determined by the pump. Changes in pump output flow will change the
speed of the actuator.

Principle three: With a given flow rate, changes in actuator volume displacement will
change actuator speed. With less volume to displace, the actuator will cycle faster. For
example, there is less volume to displace when we retract, because the cylinder rod
occupies space, diminishing the volume to be displaced. Notice the difference in speed
between extend and retract.

Quiz

1. Changing the flow rate to an actuator will have no affect on the actuator
speed.
a) True
b) False

2. If a cylinder is replaced with a larger diameter cylinder, the speed at which

the new cylinder extends and retracts will:
a) not change.
b) increase.
c) decrease.

2
 Formulas
Flow Formulas

1 gal = 231 in3

Cylinder Volume displaced (in3) = Stroke x Effective Area

Cylinder Speed (ft/min) = gpm x 19.25

Effective Area (in2)

gpm (theoretical) = Pump rpm x in3/rev

231

Volume required (gpm) = Volume Displaced x 60

Time (s) x 231

Volume Required (Hyd. Motor) = rpm x disp. (in3)

231

3
 Pressure

Pressure in a hydraulic system comes from resistance to flow. To further illustrate this
principle, consider the flow produced from a hydraulic pump. The pump is producing flow,
not pressure. However, if we begin to restrict the flow from the pump, pressure will result.

This resistance to flow is load induced from the actuator and also generated
as the fluid is passed through the various conductors and components. All
points of resistance, such as long runs of pipe, elbows, and various
components, are accumulative in series and contribute to total system
pressure.

Pascal’s law forms the basis for understanding the relationship

between force, pressure, and area. The relationship is often
expressed with the following symbol:

Mathematically we express this relationship as: Force is equal to pressure times area;
pressure is equal to force divided by area; and we can calculate the area by dividing force
by pressure.

Pascal’s law is expressed as follows: Pressure applied on a

confined fluid at rest is transmitted undiminished in all directions
and acts with equal force on equal areas and at right angles to
them. In the following illustration we have a vessel filled with a non-
compressible liquid. If 10 pounds of force is applied to a 1 square
inch stopper, the result would be 10 pounds of force on every
square inch of the container wall. If the bottom of the container was
20 square inches total, the result in force would be 10 psi times 20
square inches, or 200 pounds of total force, since force equals
pressure times area.

4
 Load-Induced

Load-induced pressure is defined as pressure generated from the load, or force on the
actuator. The effective area of the cylinder piston is the area available for force generation.
In our illustration a 10,000 pound force gives us a load-induced pressure of 1,000 psi,
based on our formula. When the cylinder is extended, the required pressure to move the
10,000 pound load is 1,000 psi less frictional forces.

During retraction, the effective area is only 5 square inches. This increases the required
pressure to 2,000 psi needed to retract the load.

Pressure Drop

Pressure that is not directly used to provide work may be defined as pressure drop or
resistive pressure. It is the pressure required to push the fluid through the conductors to the
actuator.

This energy takes the form of heat. Excessive pressure drop may contribute to excessive
heat build up in the hydraulic system. This resistive pressure is accumulative and must be
added to the overall system pressure requirements.

5
 Quiz

1. Increasing the load on an actuator will cause a decrease in system pressure.

a) True
b) False

2. Pressure is a result of flow.

a) True
b) False

3. Pressure is measured in in/lbs.

a) True
b) False

Formulas

Pressure Formulas

1 Bar = 14.5 psi

psi = lbs = Pounds pre square inch

in2

Force (lbs) = Pressure (psi) x Area (in2)

Pressure (psi) = Force (lb)

Area (in2)

Area (in2) = Force (lb)

Pressure (psi)

Area = d 2 x 0.7854

6
 Fluids

Overview

The study of fluid power deals with understanding energy transmission through a confined
liquid. The hydraulic fluid may well be considered the most important component in a
hydraulic system. It serves as lubricant, heat transfer medium, as well as a means of
transferring energy, and as a sealant.

7
 Hydraulic fluid is basically non-compressible and can take the
shape of any container. Because of this, it exhibits a certain
advantage in the transmission of force. These are examples
where the fluid will take the shape of a container.

Using a positive displacement pump we transmit energy from the prime mover, (our input
source), to the actuator, (our output), through the medium of a non-compressible fluid. As
the fluid passes through the conductors and components, certain considerations must be
given to ensure maximum efficiency of energy transfer. These considerations include the
understanding and proper application of fluid velocity and viscosity.

Velocity

Velocity is the distance fluid travels per unit of time. With a fixed
volume of fluid going through a conductor, the velocity of the fluid will
depend upon the inside diameter of the conductor.

If the diameter of a conductor is increased, the velocity of the fluid will

decrease. Conversely, if the diameter of the conductor is
decreased, the fluid’s velocity will increase.

8
 To better illustrate this principle we have two simple systems in which two pumps of equal
displacement of 30 gpm move fluid through conductors of different sizes. The
displacement remains equal while the velocity of the fluid varies with the size of the
conductor. The fluid turning fly wheel 2 is moving 4 times faster than the fluid turning fly
wheel 1 because the inside diameter of the pipe for fly wheel 1 is twice the size of the
inside diameter of fly wheel 2. However, the fly wheels turn at the same rate because the
volume displacement is equal in both systems.

Viscosity

Viscosity is a measure of a liquid’s resistance to flow. A thicker fluid has more resistance
to flow and a higher viscosity. Viscosity is affected by temperature. As a hydraulic fluid’s
temperature increases, its viscosity or resistance to flow decreases.

9
 A viscometer, the device used to measure a liquid’s viscosity,
consists of a small reservoir surrounded by a water bath used to
heat and maintain the liquid at a constant temperature. There is
a small orifice below the reservoir through which the liquid can
pass once it is heated to a specified temperature. A stop watch
is used to determine how much time it takes to fill a 60 milliliter.
flask. The number of seconds that it takes to fill the flask at a
given temperature is the liquid’s viscosity at that temperature.

Quiz

1. Viscosity is affected by the diameter of the fluid conductor.

a) True
b) False

2. At a given flow rate, to increase the diameter of the fluid conductor would cause the
fluid’s velocity to increase.
a) True
b) False

3. Pressure drop in a fluid conductor is due to leakage.

a) True
b) False

Formulas

Fluids Formulas

Flow rate (gpm) = Velocity (ft/s) x Area (in2)

0.3208

Conductor area (in2) = gpm x 0.3208

Velocity (ft /s)

Fluid Velocity (ft/s) = gpm x 0.3208

Area

10
 PUMPS

Introduction
Although various types of hydraulic pumps exist, the sole purpose of pumps is to provide
flow for the hydraulic system. In this section you will learn more about the three basic types
of hydraulic pumps: gear pumps, vane pumps, and piston pumps. It is important to
understand the differences and similarities between these pumps, their fluid displacement
capabilities, and their proper application in a hydraulic system.

Gear Pumps

Pumps are fluid power components which transform

mechanical energy transmitted by a prime mover into
fluid power energy. Gear pumps are compact,
relatively inexpensive, and have few moving parts.
External gear pumps consist of two gears, usually
equal in size, that mesh with each other inside a
housing. The driving gear is an extension of the drive
shaft. As it rotates, it drives the second gear. As both
gears rotate, fluid is drawn in through the inlet. This
fluid is trapped between the housing and the rotating
teeth of the gears where it travels around the housing
and is pushed through the outlet port. The pump creates flow and, under pressure,
transfers energy from our input source, which is mechanical, to a fluid power actuator.

Quiz

1. Gear pumps:
a) are variable volume.
b) are centrifugal.
c) have positive displacement.
d) are pressure compensated.

2. Gear pump displacement increases with increased input rpm.

a) True
b) False

3. Gear pumps
a) trap fluid between the teeth and the housing.
b) have many moving parts.
c) are used to control pressure control valves.

11
 Vane Pumps

Unbalanced:

The rotating portion of the pump, or rotor, is

positioned off center of the cam ring, or
housing. The rotor is connected to a prime
mover by means of a shaft. As the rotor is
turned, the vanes are thrown out by centrifugal
force and contact the ring, or housing, forming
a positive seal.

Fluid enters the pump and fills the large volume

area formed by the offset rotor. As the vanes
push the fluid around the cam the volume
decreases, and the fluid is pushed out the
outlet port.

Balanced:

In the unbalanced vane pump, which has been previously

illustrated, on half of the pumping mechanism it is at less than
atmospheric pressure. The other half is subjected to full
system pressure. This results in side loading the shaft while
under high pressure conditions. To compensate for this, the
ring in a balanced vane pump is changed from circular to
cam-shaped. With this arrangement, the two pressure
quadrants oppose each other. Two ports intake fluid and two
pump fluid out. The two intake ports and the two outlets ports
are connected inside the housing. Because they are on
opposite sides of the housing, excessive force or pressure buildup on one side is canceled
out by equal but opposite forces on the other side. With the forces acting on the shaft
balanced, the shaft side load is eliminated.

Flow is created in the same manner that you have seen illustrated in the unbalanced vane
pump, the only difference being, the two discharge and two suction cavities rather than one.
It is notable that constant volume, positive displacement vane pumps used in industrial
systems are generally of the balanced design.

12
 Quiz

1. Vane pumps:
a) may be variable displacement.
b) are not positive displacement.
c) use a rotor for pumping.

2. A balanced vane pump uses an elliptical cam ring for opposing pressure quadrants.
a) True
b) False

3. Which is not a part of a vane pump?

a) Vane
b) Rotor
c) Cam Ring
d) Barrel

Piston Pumps

Axial piston pumps convert rotary motion of an input shaft to an axial reciprocating motion,
occurring at the pistons. This is accomplished by a swashplate that is either fixed or
variable in its degree of angle. As the piston barrel assembly rotates, the pistons rotate
around the shaft with the piston slippers in contact with and sliding along the swashplate
surface. With the swashplate vertical, no displacement occurs because there is no
reciprocating motion. As the swashplate increases in angle, the piston moves in and out of
the barrel as it follows the angle of the swashplate surface. With the swashplate vertical, no
displacement occurs because there is no reciprocating motion. As the swashplate
increases in angle, the pistons move in and out of the barrel as it follows the angle of the
swashplate.

During one half of the circle of rotation, the piston moves out of the cylinder barrel and
generates an increasing volume. In the other half of the rotation the piston moves into the
cylinder barrel and generates a decreasing volume. This reciprocating motion draws fluid
in and pumps it out.

13
 Quiz

1. Piston Pump
a) turn reciprocating motion into rotating motion.
b) utilize one piston only.
c) require a case drain.
d) are fixed volume only.

2. Increasing the angle of the swashplate in a piston pump

a) increases the pistons’ displacement.
b) allows the pump to rotate faster.
c) Increases the pump’s outlet pressure.

3. Axial piston pumps utilize a rotating swashplate.

a) True
b) False

Fixed vs. Variable

There are two types of positive displacement hydraulic pumps. A fixed pump, which
produces a fixed flow (gpm) based on the rpm of the prime mover or electric motor, and a
variable pump, which can vary its rate of flow (gpm) while the input speed (rpm) remains
constant. Although displacement is typically measured in volume displaced per revolution,
output is measured in gpm.

In this example a motor turning at 1200 rpm is driving a fixed displacement gear pump
producing 5 gpm flow. The flow (gpm) can be changed if the speed (rpm) of the motor
changes.

When a variable displacement pump is used in the system, the flow (gpm) can be varied in
two ways. As with fixed displacement pumps, the flow (gpm) will be changed if the speed
(rpm) of the motor is changed. The second way is to vary the displacement of the pump.
For example, the displacement of an axial piston pump is determined by the distance the
pistons are pulled in and pushed out of the cylinder barrel. Since the swashplate

14
 angle controls this distance in an axial piston pump, we need only to change the angle of
the swashplate to alter the piston stroke and pump volume. Several means of varying the
swashplate angles are used. They may include hand levers, mechanical stops, or more
sophisticated, hydraulically positioned devices. If the pump produces 5 gpm flow with
1200 rpm’s and maximum displacement, the flow (gpm) can be varied by moving the
swashplate in the upright position or de-stroking the pump. This will vary the flow from 5 –
0 gpm.

The gallon per minute discharge of fixed displacement pumps can only be changed by
increasing or decreasing the speed of the electric motor.

Quiz

1. Gear Pumps
a) may be variable.
b) are usually not used in hydraulics.
c) change displacement with changes in rpm.
d) give constant output with constant rpm.

2. Variable displacement pumps change the output flow by

a) changing either the pump’s rpm and/or swashplate angle.
b) only changing the swashplate angle.
c) only changing the pump’s rpm.

3. Variable volume pumps may also be pressure compensated.

a) True
b) False

4. Piston Pumps
a) increase flow by increasing the angle of the swashplate.
b) decrease flow with increase in swashplate angle.
c) are at full displacement when the rotating group is turning.

15
 Pressure Compensated

Variable volume pumps can also be pressure

compensated. A pressure compensated piston
pump de-strokes, or moves to zero output, at a
predetermined pressure. This is accomplished
by hydraulically positioning the pumping
chambers to zero output while maintaining
compensator pressure at the outlet of the pump.
In this example we have used a pressure
compensated piston pump. It is helpful to
understand the functionality of a piston pump.

As the pistons rotate around the shaft and follow the angle of the swashplate, they are
pumping fluid out the outlet, which provides pressure to move a component such as a
cylinder. When the cylinder reaches the end of its stroke, pressure rises at the outlet of the
pump as the fluids flow path is blocked.

This pressure forces the compensating spool up allowing the pressurized fluid to energize
the de-stroking piston and push against the swashplate, forcing it to a vertical position.
With the swashplate vertical the pump is now de-stroked and the pressure at the outlet
board is maintained at a constant level. A very slight amount of flow is produced to
maintain de-stroke pressure. This flow is bypassed into the case and carried back to the
reservoir through the pump case drain outlet.

Of the three types of hydraulic pumps discussed, (gear, vane and axial piston), only the
vane and piston may be pressure compensated.

16
 Quiz

1. When an axial piston pump is de-stroked or fully compensating

a) the swashplate is at a 19° angle.
b) the swashplate is at a 0° angle.
c) there is no pressure.
d) there is maximum flow.

2. A pressure compensated axial pump will de-stroke when flow is blocked.

a) True
b) False

3. When a pressure compensated pump is on stroke, the system is at rated flow and
working pressure.
a) True
b) False

17
 ACTUATORS

Introduction

The actuator is the interface component that converts hydraulic horsepower back into
mechanical horsepower. An actuator may either be a cylinder giving linear motion or a
hydraulic motor giving rotating motion. After completing this section you should have a
good understanding of how actuators work in a hydraulic system.

Cylinders

Cylinders are linear actuators. Their output force, or motion, is in a straight line. Their
function is to convert hydraulic power into linear mechanical power. Their work
applications may include pushing, pulling, tilting, and pressing. Cylinder type and design
are based on specific applications.

Types

A ram is perhaps the most simple of the actuators. It has only one fluid
chamber and exerts force in only one direction. It is used in applications where
stability is needed on heavy loads. A single acting cylinder is pressurized on
one end only. The opposite end is vented to the tank or atmosphere. They are
designed so that the load or a device, such as an internal spring, retracts
them.

The double acting cylinder is the most common cylinder used in industrial
hydraulics. We can apply pressure to either port, giving power in both
directions. These cylinders are also classified as differential cylinders because
of their unequal exposed areas during extend and retract. The difference in
effective area is caused by the area of the rod that reduces the piston area
during retraction. Extension is slower than retraction because more fluid is
required to fill the piston side of the cylinder. However, more force can be
generated on extension because of greater effective area. On retraction, the
same amount of pump flow will retract the cylinder faster because of the reduced fluid
volume displaced by the rod. Less force, however, can be generated due to less effective
area.

18
 A double rod cylinder is considered a non-differential type cylinder. The areas on
both sides of the piston are equal, thus providing equal force in both directions. An
application for such cylinders would be where it is advantageous to couple a load to
both ends or where equal speed is needed in both directions.

Design

The cylinder assembly is constructed of a steel cap end head, a steel barrel assembly, a
rod end head, a rod bearing, a piston, and piston rod. Tie rods and nuts are used to hold
the heads and barrel assembly together. Static seals keep the joint pressure tight. A rod
wiper is provided to prevent foreign material from entering the bearing and seal area.
Sealing a moving surface is provided by the rod seal, which prevents fluid from leaking
past the rod, and by the piston seals, which prevent fluid from bypassing the piston. Fluid
is routed to and from the cylinder through the rod end port and the cap end port.

Motors

Hydraulic motors are classified as rotary actuators. Motors very closely resemble pumps in
construction. However, instead of pushing on the fluid as the pump does, the fluid pushes
on the internal surface area of the motor, developing torque. Resistance from the load is
encountered and pump flow provides a continuous rotating motion. Since both inlet and
outlet ports may be pressurized, most hydraulic motors are externally drained.

19
 Types

The three most common types of hydraulic motors are the gear, vane and piston.

Application

Hydraulics motors are primarily rated according to displacement

and torque. The first consideration should be torque. Hydraulic
motors are rated in foot or inch-pounds of torque per given psi,
typically inch-pounds per 100 psi. Torque is equal to load times
radius. Large displacement motors usually have a greater radius
for the hydraulic fluid to push against, therefore, they create more
torque at a specific pressure.

A hydraulic motor that is rated at 100 inch-pounds of

force per 100 psi is rotating a winch with a diameter of
4 inches. Our load is 500 pounds. The required
torque is 2000 inch-pounds. Based on the torque
rating of our motor, our operating pressure would be
2000 psi. The second consideration would be
displacement. This is necessary to determine the
amount of flow required to rotate the hydraulic motor at
the required rpm.

20
 Quiz

1. The purpose of an actuator is to convert hydraulic energy to mechanical energy.

a) True
b) False

2. Cylinders can be used to

a) push or pull a load.
b) tilt a load.
c) press.
d) all of the above.

3. At the same pressure, a cylinder will produce more force on extend than on retract.
a) True
b) False

4. Hydraulic motors are rated according to displacement and torque capacity.

a) True
b) False

5. Hydraulic motors are only built in two styles: van and piston.
a) True
b) False

21
 PRESSURE CONTROL

Introduction

This section is designed to give you an understanding of the basic concept of manipulating
force through a hydraulic system, using pressure control valves. The two basic design
types of these valves are direct acting and pilot operated. This section will illustrate the
operating principles of these two types of valves.

Overview

The primary concern in fluid power circuits is to either control the rate of flow or the
pressure level. One misconception has been that pressure may be controlled with an
orifice or flow control device. This is never accomplished with any degree of accuracy. For
accurate control of force, six types of pressure controls have been developed. They are:
relief valve, unloading valve, sequence valve, reducing valve, counterbalance valve, and
brake valve. By symbol, these valves closely resemble one another. Often only their
location in the hydraulic circuit will designate what type of pressure valve they are.

Direct Acting Relief Valve

Maximum system pressure can be controlled with the use of a normally closed pressure
valve. With the primary port of the valve connected to a system pressure and the
secondary port connected to tank, the poppet is actuated by a predetermined pressure
level, at which point primary and secondary passages are connected, and flow is diverted
to the tank. This type of pressure control is known as a relief valve.

22
 A direct acting relief valve is one in which the poppet is held
closed by direct force of a mechanical spring which is
usually adjustable. Spring tension is set on the knob to keep
the poppet closed until system pressure working against the
poppet reaches the desired cracking pressure. When the
system pressure reaches full relief value, all fluid is passed
across the poppet to the tank passage. It should be noted
that direct acting relief valves are usually available in only
relatively small sizes. Because it is difficult to design a strong
enough spring to keep the poppet closed at high pressure
and high flow.

Quiz

1. The secondary port of a direct acting relief valve is connected back to the tank.
a) True
b) False

2. Direct acting relief valves only come in large sizes because they have to utilize a large
spring directly against a poppet.
a) True
b) False

4. A direct acting relief valve can be used to control maximum system pressure.
a) True
b) False

Pilot Operated Relief Valve

Pilot operated relief valves are designed to accommodate higher pressures with higher
flows being confined to smaller frame size, then a direct acting relief valve with the same
rate of flow capacity. The valve is built in two stages. The first stage includes the main
spool held in a normally closed position by a light non-adjustable spring. The stage is large
enough to handle the maximum flow rating of the valve. The second stage is a small direct
acting relief valve usually mounted as a cross head on the main valve body, and includes a
poppet, spring, and adjustable knob. The first stage handles full rate of flow to the tank.
The second stage controls and limits pilot pressure level in the main spring chamber.

23
 Relieving action through the main spool is as follows: As long as
the system pressure is less than relieving pressure set on the
control knob, pressure in the main spring chamber is the same
as pump line pressure, because there is no flow through the
control orifice, Consequently, there is no pressure drop from
one side of the orifice to the other.

When pump line pressure rises higher than the adjustment set on the control knob the pilot
relief poppet moves off its seat. This starts oil flow from the pump line, through the orifice,
across the pilot relief poppet, and to the tank.

This restricted flow caused by the orifice creates a pressure difference between the pump
line and the area across the pilot orifice. This pressure imbalance causes the main poppet
to move off its seat. This will discharge enough of the pump flow to prevent any further
rise in the pump line pressure. When pump line pressure drops below the control knob
setting, the pilot relief closes, flow through the orifice ceases, and the main spring can re-
seat the main poppet.

Poppet Relief Valve

The pilot operated pressure relief valve comprises a valve body, a main spool cartridge,
and a pilot valve with a pressure-setting adjustment.

The pressure present in the primary port acts on

the bottom of the main spool and, at the same time,
the pressure is fed to the spring-loaded side of the
main spool via the control lines and containing
orifices. The pressure is also present at the ball of
the pilot valve. If the pressure increases to a level
above the spring setting of the pilot valve, the ball
opens against the spring.

The pilot oil on the spring side of the main spool cartridge now flows into the spring
chamber of the pilot valve and is directed internally to the secondary port and back to the
tank.

Due to the orifices in the control line between the primary port and the pilot valve, a
pressure drop, or pressure differential, exists between the bottom of the main spool and
the spring side of the main spool. This pressure differential lifts the main spool off its seat
and connects the primary pressure port of the valve to the
secondary, or tank port.

Fluid now flows to the tank, maintaining the set operating pressure of the valve.

24
 Quiz

1. By design, a pilot operated relief valve has a larger flow capacity than a direct operated
relief valve of the same frame size.
a) True
b) False

2. A pilot operated relief valve utilizes a small orifice in the main body for the purpose of
creating a pressure differential across the spool when the pilot poppet is open.
a) True
b) False

3. The first stage of a pilot operated relief valve is actually a small direct acting relief
valve.
a) True
b) False

25
 Pressure Sequence

A sequence valve is a normally closed pressure control valve that insures that one
operation will occur before another, based on pressure. In our clamp and drill system we
want the clamp cylinder to extend completely before the drill cylinder extends. To
accomplish this we place a sequence valve just before the drill cylinder. We set the
cylinder to 500 psi. This will insure that the drill will not extend before we have reached 500
psi on the clamp cylinder.

Quiz

1. A sequence valve is a flow control valve.

a) True
b) False

2. A sequence valve is normally open.

a) True
b) False

3. The pressure downstream of a sequence valve is limited to the sequence valve’s

settings.
a) True
b) False

Pressure Reducing

A pressure reducing valve is a normally open pressure control valve used to limit pressure
in one or more legs of a hydraulic circuit. Reduced pressure results in a reduced force
being generated. A pressure reducing valve is the only pressure control valve that is
normally open. A normally open pressure control valve has primary and secondary
passages connected. Pressure at the bottom of the spool is sensed from the pilot line
which is connected to the secondary port. Remember, a pressure reducing valve is
normally open.

26
 The illustrated clamp circuit requires that clamp cylinder B apply a lesser force than clamp
cylinder A. A pressure reducing valve placed just before the clamp cylinder B will allow flow
to go to the cylinder until pressure reaches the setting of the valve.

At this point, the valve begins to close off, limiting any further buildup of pressure. As fluid
bleeds to the tank through the valve drain passage, pressure will begin to decay off and the
valve will again open. The result is a reduced modulated pressure equal to the setting of
the valve

Quiz

1. A pressure reducing valve is the only normally open pressure control valve.

a) True
b) False

2. Pressure reducing valves are used to limit maximum system pressure.

a) True
b) False

3. Unlike other pressure control valves, the pressure reducing valve senses its pilot from
the secondary port of the valve.
a) True
b) False

27
 Unloading

An unloading valve is a remotely piloted, normally closed pressure control valve that directs
flow to the tank when pressure at that location reaches a predetermined level. A good
example of an unloading valve application would be a High-Low system. A High-Low
system may consist of two pumps; one high volume pump, the other a low volume pump.
The system is designed to give a rapid approach or return on the work cylinder. The total
volume of both pumps is delivered to the work cylinder until the load is contacted.

At this point the system pressure increases, causing the unloading valve to open. The flow
from the large volume pump is directed back to the tank at a minimal pressure. The small
volume pump continues to deliver flow for the higher pressure requirement of the work
cycle.

Both pumps join again for rapid return of the cylinder. This application allows less input
horsepower for speed and force requirements.

Quiz

1. When an unloading valve opens, it directs flow directly back to the tank.
a) True
b) False

2. Since the unloading valve is remotely piloted, it can allow flow to return to the tank at
minimal pressure.
a) True
b) False

3. Flow dictates when an unloading valve will open.

a) True
b) False

28
 Counterbalance

A counterbalance valve is a normally closed pressure valve used with cylinders to counter a
weight or potentially overrunning load. In this circuit, without a counterbalance valve the
load would fall uncontrolled or overrun, and pump flow would not be able to keep up. To
avoid the uncontrolled operation, we place a counterbalance valve just after the cylinder.

The pressure setting of the counterbalance valve is set slightly above the load-induced
pressure of 1100 psi. This counters the load. As we extend the cylinder, pressure must
slightly rise to drive the load down.

Quiz

1. A counterbalance valve is a normally open flow control valve.

a) True
b) False

2. A counterbalance valve is used to control a cylinder with a negative or

running load to move at a controlled rate.
a) True
b) False

3. The counterbalance valve should be set at a pressure slightly higher than

the load-induced pressure caused by the weight on the cylinder.
a) True
b) False

29
 Brake

A brake valve is a normally closed pressure control valve with both direct and remote pilot
connected simultaneously for its operation. This valve is frequently used with hydraulic
motors for dynamic braking.

Because any downstream resistance will add to the load on the hydraulic motor, we pilot
remotely, using working pressure to keep the valve open during running. This eliminates
back pressure on the motor.

When we de-energize the directional valve, remote pilot pressure is lost, allowing the valve
to close. The inertia of the load will now drive the valve open via the internal pilot, giving us
dynamic braking.

Quiz

1. The brake valve uses a remote pilot to maintain a constant back pressure on the motor.
a) True
b) False

2. The brake valve has two pilots for the purpose of allowing the installer more
plumbing options.
a) True
b) False

3. When the directional control valve is centered, the brake valve allows a controlled
amount of back pressure to build in the line between the motor and the brake valve to
achieve dynamic braking.
a) True
b) False

30
 Summary

Brake valve: The brake valve serves two purposes. It prevents a load from over speeding
the motor, and when the directional control valve is centered, it brings the motor to a stop at
a controlled rate of speed.

Unloading valve: When the system pressure reaches the unloading valve setting, the valve
opens diverting flow from the larger pump back to the tank at minimum pressure.

Pressure relief valve: This valve limits the maximum system pressure.

Sequence valve: If properly adjusted, the sequence valve assures that the cylinder will fully
extend before the motor starts.

Counterbalance valve: Counterbalance valves are used to aid a cylinder in lowering a load
at a controlled rate.

Pressure reducing valve: The reducing valve will limit the pressure to the motor, thus
limiting the output torque of the motor.

31
 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVE

Overview

The directional control valve is the component that starts, stops, and changes the direction
of the fluid flowing through a hydraulic system. In addition to this, the directional control
valve actually designates the type of hydraulic system design, either open or closed. The
exercises in this section will give you a hands-on opportunity to see how these valves
actually operate and the importance that they play in proper system function.

Directional control valves are used to start, stop, and change the direction of flow in a
hydraulic circuit. Although they may be designed as rotary or poppet style, the spool type
directional control is the most common. This design consists of a body with internal
passages that are connected or sealed by a sliding spool along the lands of the valve.
Directional spool valves are sealed along the clearance between the moving spool, land
and the housing. The degree of sealing depends on the clearance, the viscosity of the
fluid, and the pressure. Because of this slight leakage, spool type directional valves can
not alone hydraulically lock the actuator.

Directional control valves are primarily designated by their number of possible positions,
port connections or ways, and how they are actuated or energized. For example, the
number of porting connections are designated as ways or possible flow paths. A four-way
valve would have four ports: P, T, A, and B. A three-position valve is indicated by three
connected boxes. There are many ways of actuating or shifting the valve. They are: push
button, hand lever, foot pedal, mechanical, hydraulic pilot, air pilot, solenoid, and spring.

32
 Directional control valves may also be designated as normally opened or normally closed.
These designations would accompany two-position valves such as the following: spring
offset, solenoid operated, two-way valve normally closed; spring offset, solenoid operated,
two-way valve normally open; spring offset, solenoid operated, three-way valve normally
closed; spring offset, solenoid operated three-way valve normally open.

The spool type directional control valves in industrial applications are sub-plate or manifold
mounted. The porting pattern is industry standard and designed by valve size. Directional
control valve sizing is according to flow capacity which is critical to the proper function of

the valve. Flow capacity of a valve is determined by the port sizes and the pressure drop
across the valve. This mounting pattern and size is designed as a D02 nominal flow 5
gpm, D03 nominal flow 10 gpm, D05 nominal flow 20 gpm, D05H nominal flow 25 gpm,
D07 nominal flow 30 gpm, D08 nominal flow 60 gpm, D10 nominal flow 100 gpm.

33
 Direct Acting

A direct acting directional control valve may be either manual or solenoid actuated. Direct
acting indicates that some method of force is applied directly to the spool, causing the
spool to shift. In our illustration, energizing the solenoid or coil creates an electromagnetic
force which wants to pull the armature into the magnetic field. As this occurs, the
connected push pin moves the spool in the same direction while compressing the return
spring. As the spool valve shifts, port P opens to port A, and port B opens to port T or tank.
This allows the cylinder to extend. When the coil is de-energized, the return springs move
the spool back to its center position.

Pilot Operated

For control of systems requiring high flows, usually over 35 gpm, pilot operated directional
control valves must be used due to the higher force required to shift the spool. The top
valve, called the pilot valve, is used to hydraulically shift the bottom valve, or the main valve.
To accomplish this, oil is directed from either an internal or an external source to the pilot
valve. When we energize the pilot valve, oil is directed to one side of the main spool. This
will shift the spool, opening our pressure port to the work port and directing return fluid back
to the tank. It is often required to externally pilot or send fluid to the pilot valve from an
external source.

34
 The advantages to external piloting are constant pressure supply regardless of other
influences in the main system, and the source may be filtered separately to prevent silting
of the pilot valve. In addition to externally piloting, we may also externally or internally drain
the valve. If the pilot valve is internally drained, oil flows directly into the tank chamber of the
main valve. Pressure or flow surges occurring in the tank port when operating the main
control spool may affect the unloaded side of the main spool, as well as the pilot valve. To
avoid this, we may externally drain the pilot valve by feeding pilot oil flow back to the tank.
Pilot operated directional control valves may be field changed from internal to external pilot
and drain.

Open vs. Closed Center

We can categorize most hydraulic circuits into two basic types: open center or closed
center. The directional control valve actually designates the type of circuit. Open center
circuits are defined as circuits which route pump flow back to the reservoir through the
directional control valve during neutral or dwell time. This type of circuit typically uses a
fixed volume pump, such as a gear pump. If flow were to be blocked in neutral or when the
directional control valve is centered, it would force flow over the relief valve. This could
possibly create an excessive amount of heat and would be an incorrect design. A closed
center circuit blocks pump flow at the directional control valve, in neutral or when centered.
We must utilize a pressure compensated pump, such as a piston pump, which will de-
stroke, or an unloading circuit used with a fixed volume pump.

A three-position directional control valve incorporates a neutral or center position which

designates the circuit as open or closed, depending on the interconnection of the P and T
ports, and designates the type of work application depending on the configuration of the A
and B ports. The four most common types of three-position valves are: open type, closed
type, flow type, and tandem type.

35
 This open type configuration connects P, T, A, and B together, giving us an open center
and work force that drain to the tank. This configuration is often used in motor circuits to
allow freewheeling in neutral.

This closed type configuration blocks P, T, A, and B in neutral, giving us a closed center.
This center type is common in parallel circuits where we want to stop and hold a load in
mid-cycle.

This float type configuration blocks P while interconnecting A and B ports to T. Because P
is blocked, the circuit becomes closed center. This center type is commonly used in
parallel circuits where we are freewheeling a hydraulic motor in neutral.

36
 This tandem type configuration connects P to T while blocking work ports A and B. With P
and T connected, we have an open center circuit. This center type is used in connection
with a fixed displacement pump. Because A and B are blocked, the load can be held in
neutral.

When specifying a directional control valve type, one must consider the type of circuit
required and the work application.

Quiz

1. A closed center system maintains constant flow, but no pressure when the
directional control valve is centered.
a) True
b) False

2. The type of pump (fixed vs. pressure compensated) designates whether we have an
open or closed center system.
a) True
b) False

3. In an open center system, flow passes through the valve center and back to tank at low
pressure when the valve is centered.
a) True
b) False

37
 FLOW CONTROL VALVES

Introduction

Flow control valves are used to regulate the volume of oil supplied to different areas of
hydraulic systems. In this section you will be given an overview of the two types of flow
control valves, as well as their application and location in a hydraulic system. Because a
proper placement of these devices is critical to optimum system performance, a section
has been provided to help you learn why and where flow control devises should be used.

Overview

The function of the flow control valve is to reduce the rate of flow in its
leg of the circuit. Flow reduction will result in speed reduction at the
actuator. A flow control valve builds added resistance to the circuit,
increasing pressure, resulting in a partial bypassing of fluid over the
relief valve or a de-stroking pressure of a compensated pump. This
reduces flow downstream of the flow control valve.

In a fixed volume pump, to reduce flow to the

actuator, we must bypass a portion of the fluid over
the relief valve. As we close the needle valve,
pressure increases upstream. As we approach
1500 psi the relief valve begins to open, bypassing
a portion of fluid to the reservoir.

With flow control used in a pressure compensated

pump, we do not push fluid over the relief valve. As we approach the compensator setting
of 1500 psi, the pump will begin the de-stroke, reducing outward flow.

38
 Flow control valves may be fixed or non-adjustable or
adjustable. In addition, they may also be classified as
throttling only or pressure compensated.

The amount of flow through an orifice will remain constant as

long as the pressure differential across the orifice does not
change. When the pressure differential changes, the flow
changes. Changing load or upstream pressure will change
the pressure drop across the valve.

Throttling vs. Pressure Compensating

Needle Valves

Needle valves may be designated as non-compensated flow control or throttling valves.

They are good metering devices as long as the pressure differential across the valve
remains constant.

A pressure compensated flow control valve is designed to make allowances for pressure
changes ahead or after the orifice. The pressure compensated flow control valve symbol
adds a pressure arrow to the orifice. Notice that with a pressure compensated flow control
valve, the speed of the cylinder does not change with the change in load.

39
 Quiz

1. Flow controls are always adjustable.

a) True
b) False

2. Flow controls are often used to control the speed of an actuator.

a) True
b) False

3. Flow through a throttling valve will vary if the differential pressure across the
valve varies.
a) True
b) False

4. A pressure compensated flow control valve maintains a constant flow by

maintaining a constant pressure upstream from the valve.
a) True
b) False

Meter-In Meter-Out

Meter-in is the method of placing a flow control valve in such a way that fluid is restricted to
the actuator. In this circuit, without a flow control valve the cylinder extends and retracts at
an unrestricted rate. When we place a flow control valve into the circuit this flow control
valve will restrict flow to the cylinder, slowing the extend rate of the cylinder. The check
valve allows return flow to bypass the flow control when direction of flow is reversed.

40
 When we move the flow control to the other line, the cylinder extends at an unrestricted rate.
We can restrict the flow to the cylinder so that it will retract at a reduced rate.

The advantage to meter-in is that it is very accurate

with a positive load. However, when the load goes
over center, the load becomes negative or
overrunning. The load is no longer being controlled
by the cylinder. As the load overruns, it causes the
cylinder to cavitate.

Although meter-in is usually the best placement for controlling a constant speed, because it
also dampens flow and pressure transients, it may be required in some applications to
meter-out. To meter-out we simply change the direction that the flow is allowed to pass
through the reverse check. This will cause the fluid is be metered as it leaves the actuator,
which is opposite of meter-in.

41
 An advantage of meter-out is that it will prevent a cylinder
from overrunning and consequently cavitating. A
disadvantage of meter-out can be pressure
intensification. This can occur with a substantial
differential area ratio between the rod ands and piston.
When we meter-out on the rod side of the cylinder without
a load, the pressure is intensified on the rod side. This
may damage the rod seals. Meter-in or meter-out has
advantages and disadvantages. The application must
determine the type of flow control valve placement.

Quiz

1. Meter-in should only be used with a positive load.

a) True
b) False

2. When metering-in one must always use a pressure compensated flow control.
a) True
b) False

3. Meter-in refers to controlling the flow going to the actuator.

a) True
b) False

42
 FLUID CONDITIONING

Introduction

Fluid conditioning is critical in maintaining proper operation of a hydraulic system. In this

section, you will learn about different types of filters, their location, and how they keep
hydraulic fluid clean. You will also learn about the importance of regulating the temperature
of hydraulic fluid with devices like heat exchangers. For example, fluid that is too hot or too
cold can have a negative impact on system performance.

Filtration

Overview

Cleanliness of hydraulic fluid has become critical in the design and operation of fluid power
components. With pumps and valves designed to closer tolerances and finer finishes, fluid
systems operate at ever increasing pressures and efficiencies. These components will
perform as designed as long as the fluid is clean. Oil cleanliness results in increased
system reliability and reduced maintenance.

As particles are induced or ingressed

into a hydraulic system, they are often
ground into thousands of fine particles.
These tiny particles are tightly packed
between valve spools and their bores,
causing the valve to stick. This is
known as silting.

To prevent silting, early component wear, and eventual system failure, engineered filtration
is required. Engineered filtration includes: understanding required micron rating,
application of the beta ratio, maintaining proper ISO code cleanliness levels, filter location
specific to the system design and environment.

43
 Terminology

µ m)
Micron (µ

Micron (µm) is the designation used to describe particle sizes or clearances in hydraulic
components. A micron is equal to 39 millionths of an inch. To put this into perspective the
smallest dot that can be seen by the naked eye is 40 µm.

Consider the following illustration. If we looked at a human hair

magnified 100 times the particles you see next to the hair are
about 10 µm. Industrial hydraulic systems usually filter in the
10 µm range. This means that filters are filtering particles that
can not be seen by the naked eye.

Beta ratio

Filtration devices are used to filter particles out of the system’s fluid. A filter’s efficiency is
rated with a beta ratio. The beta ratio is the number of particles upstream from the filter
that are larger than the filter’s micron rating divided by the number of particles downstream
larger than the filter’s micron rating.

In this example there are 200 particles upstream which are larger than 3 µm. These flow up
to and through the filters.

A filter that allows more particles through or in other words, one that is less efficient, has a
low beta ratio. You can see that the filter at the top allowed 100 particles through. The filter
on the bottom allowed only 1 particle through.

If we apply these numbers to the beta ratio formula, we can see that the filter at the top has
a lower or less efficient beta ratio and the filter at the bottom has a higher or more efficient
beta ratio.

44
 ISO Code

To specify the cleanliness level of a given volume of fluid we refer to what is known as an
ISO code, or ISO solid contamination code. This code, which applies to all types of fluid,
provides a universal expression of relative cleanliness between suppliers and users of
hydraulic fluid.

Based on 1 milliliter of fluid, a particle count is

analyzed using specific sizes of particles, 4 µm,
6 µm, and 14 µm. These three sizes were
selected because it gives an accurate
assessment of the amount of silt from 4 µm
particles and 6 µm particles, while the number of
particles above 14 µm reflects the amount of
wear type particles in the fluid.

To interpret the meaning of these results a graph like the one shown would have been
consulted. In this example, a rating of 22/18/13 indicates the following: The first number 22
indicates the number of particles greater than or equal to 4 µm in size is more than 20,000
and less than or equal to 40,000, per milliliter. The second number 18 indicates the number
of particles greater than or equal to 6µm in size is more than 1,300 and less than or equal
to 2,500, per milliliter. The third number 13 indicates the number of particles greater than or
equal to 14 µm in size is more than 40 and less than or equal to 80, per milliliter.

This ISO code is meaningful only if we can relate it to the required cleanliness level of our
hydraulic system. This is usually based on a manufacturer’s requirement for cleanliness
levels in which a component may operate. For example: Most servo valves require a ISO
code of 15/13/12 or better, while gear pumps may operate adequately in fluids with
18/16/15 ISO.

45
 Placement

Filter placement is critical for maintaining acceptable fluid cleanliness levels, adequate
component protection, and reducing machine downtime. Filter breathers are critical in
prevention of airborne particulate ingression. As the system operates, the fluid level in the
reservoir changes. This draws in outside air and with it, airborne particulates. The
breather filters the air entering the reservoir.

Pressure filters are often required to protect the component immediately downstream of
the filter, such as a sensitive servo valve, from accelerated wear, silting, or sticking.
Pressure filters must be able to withstand the operating pressure of the system as well as
any pump pulsations. Return filters best provide for maintaining total system cleanliness,
depending on their µm rating (beta ratio). They can trap very small particles before they
return to the reservoir. They must be sized to handle the full return flow from the system. A
kidney loop or off-line filtration is often required when fluid circulation through a return filter
is minimal. Being independent of the main hydraulic system, off-line filters can be placed
where they are most convenient to service or change. Off-line filtration normally runs
continuously.

QUIZ

1. The beta ratio of 75

a) is less efficient than beta 100.
b) is more efficient than beta 100.
c) indicates the micron size.
d) none of the above.

2. In determining a filter’s beta ratio, the micron rating

a) is critical.
b) does not apply to the efficiency.
c) is smaller than the particles being filtered.
d) is larger than the particles being filtered.

3. Filter breathers are critical in prevention of airborne particulate ingression.

a) True
b) False
46
 HEAT EXCHANGERS

Types

Temperature control is critical in hydraulic systems. Even with the best circuit design, there
are always power losses in converting mechanical energy into fluid power. Heat is
generated whenever fluid flows from high to low pressure without producing mechanical
work. Heat exchangers may be required when operating temperatures are critical or when
the system cannot dissipate all the heat that is generated.

There are two basic types of heat exchangers. Each is based on a different cooling
medium: water cooled heat exchangers and air cooled heat exchangers. If cooling water is
available, a shell and tube heat exchanger may be preferred. Cooling water is
circulated through a bundle of bronze tubes from one end cap to
the other. Hydraulic fluid is circulated through the unit and around
the tubes containing the water. The heat is removed from the
hydraulic fluid by the water. There are advantages to this type of
cooler. They are the least expensive, they are very compact, they do not make noise, they
provide consistent heat removal year round, and they are good in dirty environments. The
disadvantages are: water costs can be expensive, with rupture oil and water may mix, and
usually require regular maintenance from mineral buildup.

Air cooled heat exchangers consist of a steel radiator core through which oil flows while
a strong blast of air passes across the core. In industrial applications
the air is pushed by an electric motor driven fan. The advantages of this
type of air cooled heat exchanger are: they eliminate problems
associated with cooling water, they have low installed costs, and the
dissipated heat can be reclaimed. The disadvantages are: there is a
higher installation cost, noise levels range from 60 to 90 decibels, and
they are larger in size than comparable water cooled equipment.

NOTES

47
 RESERVOIRS

In addition to holding the system’s fluid supply, the reservoir serves several other important
functions. It cools the hydraulic fluid. This is accomplished by dissipating excess heat
through its walls. It conditions the fluid. As oil waits to leave the reservoir solid
contaminants settle while air rises and escapes. The reservoir may provide mounting
support for the pump or other components.

A well designed hydraulic system always

includes a properly designed reservoir.
An industrial reservoir should include the
following components: a baffle plate to
prevent returning fluid from entering the
pump inlet, a clean out cover for
maintenance access, a filter breather
assembly to allow air exchange, a filler
opening well protected from contaminant
ingression, a level indicator allowing
upper and lower levels of fluid to be monitored, and adequate connections and fittings for
suction lines, return lines, and drain lines.

It is often stated that the hydraulic fluid is the heart of the system or the most important
component. The reservoir serves a critical role in maintaining the efficiency of fluid transfer
and conditioning.

Quiz

1. Reservoirs help to condition hydraulic fluid, as well as storing the fluid.

a) True
b) False

2. Hydraulic fluid returning to the reservoir may contain entrained air and solid
contaminants.
a) True
b) False

3. All fluid conductor lines entering the reservoir terminate below the fluid level.
a) True
b) False

48
 CHECK VALVES

Introduction

Check valves are a simple but important part of a hydraulic system. Simply stated, these
valves are used to maintain the direction that fluid flows through a system. And since check
valves are zero leakage devices we can use them to lock hydraulic fluid from the cylinders.
This section has been designed to help you understand how the different valves function
and the strategy of where they are used in the system.

In-line

In-line check valves are classified as directional control valves because they dictate the
direction flow can travel in a portion of the circuit. Because of their sealing capability many
designs are considered to have zero leakage. The simplest check valve allows free flow in
one direction and blocks flow from the opposite direction. This style of check valve is used
when flow needs to bypass a pressure valve during return flow, as a bypass around a filter
when a filter becomes clogged, or to keep flow from entering a portion of a circuit at an
undesirable time.

Pilot Operated

Because of slight spool leakage on standard directional control valves, we must add a
check valve to the circuit if we need to hydraulically lock a cylinder. This type of check valve
is referred to as a pilot operated check valve.

49
 Unlike a simple check valve, reverse flow is required through the valve to extend or retract
the cylinder. This is accomplished by allowing pilot pressure to act on a pilot piston, thus
opening the check valve and retracting the cylinder.

To extend the cylinder, the check valve allows fluid to flow freely in one direction and blocks
flow in the opposite direction.

Quiz

1. Check valves are classified as

a) pressure control valves.
b) flow control valves.
c) directional control valves.
d) bypass valves.

2. Pilot operated check valves use an external pilot to allow reverse flow to pass through
the valve.
a) True
b) False

3. A pilot operated check valve with a pilot ratio of 10:1 would open with 200 psi pilot
pressure even if there was 2000 psi back pressure on the valve.
a) True
b) False

4. Check valves are considered to have

a) much leakage.
b) zero leakage.
c) little leakage.
d) moderate leakage.

50
 ACCESSORY COMPONENTS

Introduction

In this section you will be given an overview of several accessory components that are used
in most hydraulic systems. You’ll learn about accumulators, pressure switches, gauges,
flow meters, and manifolds. These components are vital to proper system operation, and
understanding how they are used in a system is an important part of this basic hydraulic
course.

Accumulators

Accumulators are devices that store energy in the form of fluid under pressure. Because of
their ability to store excess energy and release it when needed, accumulators are useful
tools for improving hydraulic efficiency. Industrial hydraulic accumulators are typically
classified as hydropneumatic. This type of accumulator applies a force to a liquid by using
compressed gas.

The two most common types of hydropneumatic

accumulators are the bladder type accumulator and
the piston accumulator. The name of each type
indicates the device separating gas from liquid.

A hydropneumatic accumulator has a fluid

compartment and a gas compartment, with a gas type
element such as a bladder separating the two. The
bladder is charged through a gas valve at the top of the accumulator, while a poppet valve
at the bottom prevents the bladder from extruding into the pressure line. The poppet valve
is sized so that the maximum volume metric flow cannot be exceeded.

To operate, the bladder is pre-charged with

nitrogen to a pressure specified by the
manufacturer according to the operating
conditions. When the system pressure
exceeds the gas pre-charged pressure, the
poppet valve opens and hydraulic fluid enters
the accumulator.
The changing gas volume in the bladder
determines the useable volume or useful fluid
capacity.

Accumulators store energy that can be used during power failure or when additional energy
is needed. In certain situations additional flow may be needed. An accumulator can be
used to supplement the flow rate of a pump.

51
 Pressure Switches

There are two types of pressure switches: the bourbon tube switch and the piston switch,
shown here. This pressure switch consists of a micro switch, a spring, a mechanical stop,
a push rod, and a piston actuator. External lights are often used to indicate that the switch
has been activated.

When pressure builds in the system, it enters the device, applying

force to the piston actuator. This energy is transferred to the
mechanical stop, compressing the spring, driving the push rod up
until it activates the micro switch. Pressure switches are used to
open or close an electrical circuit when a predetermined pressure
has been reached.

Pressure Gauges

Bourbon tube pressure gauges measure the pressure in a

system and display it on a calibrated dial. The units of
calibration are displayed in psi, bar, and psia.

The bourbon tube is a coiled metal tube. It is connected to

system pressure. Any increase in pressure within the system
causes the tube to straighten out.

The end of the tube is connected to a mechanical linkage which

turns a gear. This gear in turn meshes with a gear, driving the
pointer needle. Watch now as the tube is pressurized, causing
the needle to turn and give the new system pressure.

52
 Flow meters

The purpose of a flow meter is to measure flow. It is usually not bi-directional and acts as a
check valve blocking flow in the reverse direction. The main components consist of: a
metering cone, a magnetic piston which is held in the no-flow position by a tempered
spring.

Fluid first enters the device, flowing around the metering cone, putting pressure on the
magnetic piston and spring. As flow increases in the system, the magnetic piston begins
to compress the spring, indicating the flow rate on the graduated scale.

Manifolds

As the number of connections in a hydraulic system increase, so does the possibility of

leaky fittings. Hydraulic manifolds drastically reduce the number of external connections
required.

Manifolds used for modular valve stacking incorporate a

common pressure and return port. With individual A and B
work ports for each valve station, at each station additional
control valving may be added by sandwiching or stacking
the valves vertically. This is accomplished without any
external connections. Manifolds are specified according to
system pressure, total flow, number of work stations, valve
size or pattern.

53
 Quiz

1. A flow meter controls the amount of flow in a circuit.

a) True
b) False

2. A pressure gauge measures pressure in a system and displays it on a calibrated dial.

a) True
b) False

3. Pressure switches are used to open or close an electrical circuit when a pre-
determined pressure has been reached.
a) True
b) False

4. Manifolds reduce the number of connections, but increase the number of potential leak
points.
a) True
b) False

5. Two common applications for accumulators are to store energy in a hydraulic circuit
and to supplement pump flow.
a) True
b) False

54
 FLUID CONDUCTORS

Introduction

Fluid conductors are those parts of the system that are used to carry fluid to all of the
various components in the hydraulic circuit. These types of conductors include: hydraulic
hose, steel tubing, and steel pipe. This section will help you understand the benefits of
these different conductors and where they are best used in a hydraulic system.

Overview

Transmitting power from one location to another is a key element in system design and
performance. We define this as fluid conducting. Fluid conductors describe the different
types of conducting lines that carry hydraulic fluid between components. The three
principle types of plumbing materials used in hydraulic systems are steel pipes, steel
tubing, and flexible hose. A safety factor of 4 to 1 is recommended on the pressure rating
of the plumbing material. To determine the working pressure of the conductor, we must
take the rated burst pressure and divide by the safety factor of 4.

Hose

Hydraulic hoses are used in applications where lines must flex or bend. In considering the
use of hoses, one must first look at system pressure, pressure pulses,
velocity, fluid compatibility, and environmental conditions. Hose
construction has been standardized by the Society of Automotive
Engineers under SAE J5-17. This is known as the R series. As an example, 100R2 or
100R4. This designation describes the cover, construction, pressure rating and
application.

Hoses are usually pressure rated with a safety factor of 4 to 1. Different types and amounts
of reinforcement give the hose specific pressure ratings. The reinforcement may be a
natural or synthetic fiber or metal wire. The reinforcement may be braided or spiral bond.
Required hose size depends on the volume and velocity of the fluid flow. Unlike pipe and
tubing, hose sizes are designated by I.D. or inside diameter. Sizes are designated in
16ths of an inch by using a dash and a number equivalent to the numerator of the fraction.

Example is: dash 8 (-8) or 8/16” or half inch I.D.

Hose life can last a long time, but all rubber slowly deteriorates with contact from various
substances, such as solvents, water, sunlight, heat, etc. Hoses are not as permanent as
metal conductors and should be replaced every few years.

55
 Proper hose installation is critical. Improper bends, twisting, or lack of proper anchoring
may lead to hose failure.

Pipe

Steel pipe is often a preferred conductor from the standard point of

performance and cost. However, it often difficult to assemble, because
welding is required to give maximum leak protection. It also requires
costly flushing to insure a contaminant free system at startup.

Pipe is specified by its nominal outside diameter, but its actual flow capacity is determined
by its inside area. For example, Schedules 40, 80, and 160 and Double Extra have the
same outside diameter, and can be threaded by the same pipe die. The difference is the
inside diameter and area. Schedule 40 pipe is standard and has the thinnest wall, with
more flow area but less pressure rating.

Steel Tubing

Tubing is used as a conductor when rigid lines are required. It is often easier to assemble
and form and requires no welding to achieve leak-free
connections. As with all types of conductors, certain requirements
must be met. The line must be large enough to carry the required
flow and strong enough to withstand internal pressures.

56
 Tubing is measured and specified by its wall thickness and outside diameter. Pressure
ratings are based on tubing grade and wall thickness. One piece of tubing is joined to
another tube connector, or component, with a tube connector and fastening nut. Often the
tube is pre-flared to 37 degrees to accept a 37 degree flare connector.

Sizing

With this chart you will learn proper size selection for desired flow rate or velocity. To
determine the pipe size needed, enter the flow in gpm and the velocity in feet per second in
the windows labeled gpm and fps. You can also use your mouse to slide the red markers
on either scale.

Quiz

1. As flow increases, fluid velocity through a conductor increases.

a) True
b) False

2. Using standard nominal pipe with a flow of 27 1/2 gpm, what pipe size would give us 20
ft/sec velocity?
a) 1/2”
b) 3/4”
c) 1”
d) need to know I.D.

3. Tubing is measured and specified by its wall thickness and its O.D.
a) True
b) False
57
 UNDERSTANDING SCHEMATICS

Introduction

When hydraulic systems are designed, whether on paper or computer, the layout of the
system is expressed in what is called a schematic. A schematic is a line drawing made up
of a series of symbols and connections that represent the actual components in a hydraulic
system. Although there are dozens of different symbols used in a complex schematic
drawing, it is important to be able to recognize several basic symbols. In this section, you
will learn to identify these basic symbols as well as where they are placed in the schematic
of a basic hydraulic system.

Symbolism

Symbols are critical for technical communication. They are not

dependent on any specific language, being international in scope
and character. Hydraulic graphic symbols emphasize the function
and methods of operation of components. These symbols can be
rather simple to draw, if we understand their logic and the
elementary forms used in symbol design. The elementary forms
of symbols are: circles, squares, triangles, arcs, arrows, dots, and
crosses.

Lines

Understanding graphic line symbols is critical to proper interpretation of

schematics. Continuos lines indicate a working line, pilot supply, return, or
electrical line. A dashed line indicates a pilot, drain, purge, or bleed line.
Flexible lines indicate a house usually connected to a moving part. Lines
crossing may use loops at crossovers or be straight across. Lines joining may
use a dot at the junction or can be at right angles.

Reservoirs

Reservoirs that are vented are shown as a rectangle with the top line omitted.
Pressurized reservoirs are shown as a capsules. Reservoirs may have fluid oil
lines terminating above or below the fluid level. The above oil level return line
terminates at or slightly below the upright legs of the tank symbol. The below level
return line touches the bottom of the tank symbol. A simplified symbol to represent
the reservoir, minimizes the need to draw a number of lines returning to the
reservoir. A number of these in the same circuit will represent a common
reservoir. These symbols have the same function as the ground symbol in electric
circuits.

58
 Pumps

Rotary devices are shown as a circle. Pumps having a energy triangle pointing to the
outside perimeter, indicate the energy is leaving the component. A sloping arrow drawn
diagonally through the circle indicates that the pump is variable, or the output flow can be
regulated without changing shaft speed. A control
symbol with a energy triangle that is connected to an
adjustable spring indicates that the pump is pressure
compensated. Some types of pumps have internal
leakage that is returned to the tank by a case drain. This is indicated with a drain line
drawn leaving the circle. Pumps that are bi-directional are shown with two energy flow
triangles.

Flow control

The symbol for a flow control valve begins with an upper and lower arc. This
would symbolize a fixed orifice. An arrow drawn sloping through the arcs
indicate that the orifice is adjustable. This would be the graphic symbol for a
needle valve. When we add an arrow to the flow line inside a control box, we
have indicated that the valve is pressure compensated or true flow control. A
flow control valve with a check valve indicates reverse flow around the valve.

Directional Control Valves

The symbol for directional control valve has multiple envelopes showing the
number of positions the valve may have. A three-position directional control
valve is shown with three envelopes. Arrows in each envelope indicate the
possible direction and flow while the valve is in that position. The center
position in a three-position directional control valve is designed according
to the type of circuit or application. This centered position indicates the flow
path of the fluid while the valve is centered. While there are many types of
center configurations, the four most common are tandem, closed, float, and
open. To shift the valve or activate it, we can use a mechanical handle or
lever, an electric solenoid or hydraulic pilot pressure. The springs on both
sides of the symbol indicate that the valve is centered when not activated. In
position one, or centered, fluid flows from the pump, through the valve to the tank. This is a
tandem center. When we shift the valve to position two, fluid now flows from P to A,
extending the cylinder, shifting to position three, which shows flow now from P to B and
from A to T, the cylinder retracts.

59
 Pressure Valves

The symbol for a pressure valve begins with a single envelope. The arrow in the envelope
depicts the direction of flow through the valve. The ports are indicated as 1 and 2, or
primary and secondary. Flow through the valve is from the primary to the secondary port.
Notice that in the normal position, the arrow is not aligned with the port. This indicates that
the valve is normally closed. All pressure valves are normally closed with the
exception of a pressure reducing valve, which is normally open. The spring
located perpendicular to the arrow indicates that the spring force holds the
valve closed. An arrow diagonally through the spring indicates that the spring
force is adjustable. Pilot pressure opposes spring force. This is indicated by
the dotted line running from the primary port perpendicular to the arrow
opposite the spring. When the hydraulic pressure piloted from the primary
port exceeds the force of the spring, the valve moves to the open position,
aligning the primary and secondary ports.

Check valves

Check valve symbols are drawn with a small circle inside an open triangle. Free
flow is opposite the direction the triangle is pointed. As the circle moves into
the triangle, the flow is blocked or checked. Check valves may be piloted to
open or to closed. Pilot to open is indicated with a pilot line directed to the
triangle shown to push the circle away from the seal. Pilot to closed is indicated
by directing the pilot line to back of the circle or into the seat.

Motors

Hydraulic motor graphic symbols are opposite of hydraulic pumps’, the difference
being the energy triangle points into the circle, indicating fluid energy entering. Two
energy triangles pointing in indicate a bi-directional or reversible motor. As with
pumps, many hydraulic motor designs have internal leakage. A dotted line leaving
the circle indicates a drain line to the tank.

60
 Cylinders

Fluid power cylinders with no unusual relationship between the bore and rod
size are shown: single acting, double acting, and double rod. An internal
rectangle adjacent to the symbol for the piston indicates a cushion device at
the end of the stroke. If the diameter of the rod is larger than usual for the bore
size, the symbol must reflect this.

Filters

The graphic symbol for a hydraulic fluid conditioned device is shown with a square
standing on end. A dotted line across opposite corners indicates that it is a filter or
a strainer. Adding a check valve across and parallel to the ports indicate that the
filter has a bypass.

Heat exchanger

Hydraulic heat exchangers may be considered coolers or heaters. Their graphic

symbols are often confused. As with a filter, the base symbol is shown as a
square on end. Inside arrows pointing in indicate the introduction of heat or a
heater. Arrows pointing out indicate heat dissipating or a cooler. Arrows both
pointing in and out would indicate a temperature controller or temperature that is
maintained between two predetermined limits.

61
 Quiz

1. Identify the following symbols:

a) Relief valve
b) Counterbalance valve
c) Sequence valve

2. Identify the following symbols:

a) Needle valve
b) Throttling valve
c) Pressure compensated flow control valve

3. Identify the following symbols:

a) Gear pump
b) Piston pump
c) Pressure compensated pump

62