DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi Approved by AICTE; ISO 9001:2015

Certified Accredited by National Assessment Accreditation Council (NAAC) with ‘A’ grade
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078

Module 3
Research design and Methods
Research Design
Meaning of Research Design: The most important step after defining the research problem is
preparing the design of the research project, which is popularly known as the research design. A
research design helps to decide upon issues like what, when, where, how much, by what means
etc. With regard to an enquiry or a research study. A research design is the arrangement of
conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the
research purpose with economy in procedure. In fact, research design is the conceptual structure
within which research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement
and analysis of data (Selltizetal, 1962). Thus, research design provides an outline of what the
researcher is going to do in terms of framing the hypothesis, its operational implications and the
final data analysis. Specifically, the research design highlights decisions which include:
1. The nature of the study
2. The purpose of the study
3. The location where the study would be conducted
4. The nature of data required
5. From where the required data can be collected
6. What time period the study would cover
7. The type of sample design that would be used
8. The techniques of data collection that would be used
9. The methods of data analysis that would be adopted and
10. The manner in which the report would be prepared
In view of the stated research design decisions, the overall research design may be divided into the
following (Kothari 1988):
a) The sampling design that deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the
selected study
b) The observational design that relates to the conditions under which the observations are to
be made
c) The statistical design that concerns with the question of how many items are to be observed,
and how the information and data gathered are to be analyzed and
d) The operational design that deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified in
the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out

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 DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi Approved by AICTE; ISO 9001:2015
Certified Accredited by National Assessment Accreditation Council (NAAC) with ‘A’ grade
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078

Features of a Good Design:

The important features of Research Design may be outlined as follows:
i. It constitutes a plan that identifies the types and sources of information required for the
Research problem
ii. It constitutes a strategy that specifies the methods of data collection and analysis which
would be adopted and
iii. It also specifies the time period of research and monetary budget involved in conducting
the study, which comprise the two major constraints of undertaking any research
Important Concepts Relating to Research Design:
1. Dependent and independent variables: A magnitude that varies is known as a variable. The
concept may assume different quantitative values like height, weight, income etc.
Qualitative variables are not quantifiable in the strictest sense of the term. However, the
qualitative phenomena may also be quantified in terms of the presence or absence of the
attribute(s) considered. The phenomena that assume different values quantitatively even in
decimal points are known as continuous variables. But all variables need not be continuous.
Values that can be expressed only in integer values are called ‗non-continuous variables.
In statistical terms, they are also known as discrete variables. For example, age is a
continuous variable, whereas the number of children is a non-continuous variable. When
changes in one variable depend upon the changes in other variable or variables, it is known
as a dependent or endogenous variable, and the variables that cause the changes in the
dependent variable are known as the independent or explanatory or exogenous variables.
For example, if demand depends upon price, then demand is a dependent variable, while
price is the independent variable. And, if more variables determine demand, like income
and price of the substitute commodity, then demand also depends upon them in addition to
the price of original commodity. In other words, demand is a dependent variable which is
determined by the independent variables like price of the original commodity, income and
price of substitutes.
2. Extraneous variables: The independent variables which are not directly related to the
purpose of the study but affect the dependent variables, are known as extraneous variables.
For instance, assume that a researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a
relationship between children‘s school performance and their self-confidence, in which
case the latter is an independent variable and the former, a dependent variable. In this
context, intelligence may also influence the school performance. However, since it is not
directly related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it would be
known as an extraneous variable. The influence caused by the extraneous variable(s) on
the dependent variable is technically called the ‘experimental error‘. Therefore, a research
study should always be framed in such a manner that the influence of extraneous variables

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An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi Approved by AICTE; ISO 9001:2015
Certified Accredited by National Assessment Accreditation Council (NAAC) with ‘A’ grade
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078

on the dependent variable/s is completely controlled, and the influence of independent

variable/s is clearly evident. Control, One of the most important features of a good research
design is to minimize the effect of extraneous variable(s). Technically, the term ‘control‘
is used when a researcher designs the study in such a manner that it minimizes the effects
of extraneous variables. The term ‘control’ is used in experimental research to reflect the
restrain in experimental conditions.
3. Confounded relationship: The relationship between the dependent and independent
variables is said to be confounded by an extraneous variable, when the dependent variable
is not free from its effects.
4. Research hypothesis: When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is tested by
adopting scientific methods, it is known as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is
a predictive statement which relates to a dependent variable and an independent variable.
Generally, a research hypothesis must consist of at least one dependent variable and one
independent variable. Whereas, the relationships that are assumed but not to be tested are
predictive statements that are not to be objectively verified, thus are not classified as
research hypotheses.
5. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis testing research: When the objective of a
research is to test a research hypothesis, it is known as hypothesis testing research. Such
research may be in the nature of experimental design or nonexperimental design. The
research in which the independent variable is manipulated is known as experimental
hypothesis-testing research‘, whereas the research in which the independent Variable is not
manipulated is termed as ‘nonexperimental hypothesis- testing research‘.
6. Experimental and control groups: When a group is exposed to usual conditions in an
experimental hypothesis-testing research, it is known as ‘control group‘. On the other hand,
when the group is exposed to certain new or special condition, it is known as an
‘experimental group’. In the afore-mentioned example, Group A can be called as control
group and Group B as experimental group. If both the groups, A and B are exposed to some
special feature, then both the groups may be called as ‘experimental groups‘. A research
design may include only the experimental group or both the experimental and control
groups together.
7. Treatments: Treatments refer to the different conditions to which the experimental and
control groups are subject to.
8. Experiment: Experiment refers to the process of verifying the truth of a statistical
hypothesis relating to a given research problem. For instance, an experiment may be
conducted to examine the yield of a certain new variety of rice crop developed. Further,
Experiments may be categorized into two types, namely, ’absolute experiment ‘and
’comparative experiment‘. If a researcher wishes to determine the impact of a chemical
fertilizer on the yield of a particular variety of rice crop, then it is known as absolute
experiment. Meanwhile, if the researcher wishes to determine the impact of chemical

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An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi Approved by AICTE; ISO 9001:2015
Certified Accredited by National Assessment Accreditation Council (NAAC) with ‘A’ grade
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078

fertilizer as compared to the impact of bio-fertilizer, then the experiment is known as a

comparative experiment.
9. Experimental unit(s): Experimental units refer to the pre-determined plots, characteristics
or the blocks, to which different treatments are applied.
Development of Models in Research

The development of models and a comprehensive research plan are central to ensuring a systematic
and effective inquiry. A well-structured research plan acts as a blueprint, guiding the researcher
through each stage of the investigation and minimizing the chances of errors or inefficiencies.
Kothari emphasizes that the research plan should be tailored to the specific objectives of the study,
which often fall into categories such as exploration, description, diagnosis, or experimentation.

Exploratory research is typically undertaken when a problem is not clearly defined or

understood. Its primary aim is to gain familiarity with a phenomenon, to formulate a more
precise research problem, or to develop working hypotheses for future investigation. This type of
research is flexible and allows for new insights to emerge.

Descriptive research, as the name suggests, focuses on describing the characteristics of a

particular individual, group, or phenomenon. It seeks to answer "what," "who," "where," and
"when" questions, often employing surveys or observational methods to paint a detailed picture of
the situation. The emphasis here is on accuracy and factual reporting, rather than establishing
cause-and-effect relationships.
Diagnostic research delves deeper than descriptive studies, aiming to determine the frequency
with which something occurs or to identify the causes of a problem. It seeks to understand "why"
certain phenomena happen. This often involves analyzing existing data, conducting case studies,
or employing more sophisticated statistical techniques to pinpoint causal factors.
Experimental research is characterized by the researcher's deliberate manipulation of one or more
variables (independent variables) to observe their effect on other variables (dependent variables)
while controlling for extraneous factors. This approach is most suitable for establishing cause-and-
effect relationships and testing hypotheses rigorously.
Integral to any research plan is the determination of experimental and sample designs. An
experimental design provides the framework for conducting experiments, specifying how
treatments will be assigned to experimental units and how observations will be made. This includes
various designs like completely randomized designs, randomized block designs, or factorial
designs, each suited for different research questions and control needs. Alongside this, a robust
sampling design is crucial for selecting a representative subset (sample) from a larger population.
The various sampling methods, including probability sampling (e.g., simple random, stratified,
systematic, cluster) and non-probability sampling (e.g., convenience, quota, judgmental),

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An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi Approved by AICTE; ISO 9001:2015
Certified Accredited by National Assessment Accreditation Council (NAAC) with ‘A’ grade
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078

highlighting their respective advantages and limitations. The choice of sampling design directly
impacts the generalizability of the research findings, underscoring the need for careful
consideration to ensure the sample accurately reflects the characteristics of the target population.
Ultimately, developing effective models and a meticulous research plan encompassing these
aspects is paramount for conducting high-quality, systematic, and credible research.

Sampling design
The use of sampling in making inferences about a population is possible and has been in operation
right from beginning. When one has to make an inference about a lot of large size and it is not
practicable to examine each individual unit, then few units of the lot are examined and on the basis
of the information of those units, one makes decisions about whole lot. For example, a person
would like to purchase a bag of rice may examine a handful of rice from the bag and on the basis
of that he/she makes his/her decision about the purchase of full bag.
Population - A group of individuals having same characteristics in same surrounding is known as
population
Census - In census, we study about each and every unit of the population. Population means total
units of investigation area. In census, whole group related to investigation is investigated and the
information are collected, i.e. Census of population of a country, Census of import and export, etc
Sample - A finite subset of statistical individuals in a population is called a sample and the number
of individuals in a sample is called the sample size.
Sample Design: Essentials of Sampling For obtaining the unbiased and real result by a sampling
method, a sample should have the following factors (characteristics):
i. Homogeneity The nature of each and every unit of the population should not contain much
difference. If two or more samples are selected then they should be similar in nature not in
their response/output.
ii. Representativeness The sample should represent all the characteristics of the population
that can be possible only when the selection of items or units has been done unbiased and
each and every unit have an equal probability of chance to be selected in the sample.
iii. Independency Each and every unit of the population should be independent. In other words,
the selection of a unit in the sample should not be dependent on the selection of other units.
iv. Adequacy The number of units or elements which are to be selected in the sample should
be sufficient. If the sample size is not sufficient then results cannot be reliable. The more
the sample units in the sample, more reliable results would occur.

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 DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi Approved by AICTE; ISO 9001:2015
Certified Accredited by National Assessment Accreditation Council (NAAC) with ‘A’ grade
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078

PRINCIPLE STEPS IN SAMPLE SURVEY

The main steps involved in the planning and execution of a sample survey are under the following
heads:
1. Objectives The objective of the survey must be defined in clear and concrete terms.
Generally, in survey a investigation team is not quite clear in mind as to what they want
and how they are going to use the results. Some of the objectives may be immediate and
some far-reaching. The investigator should take care of these objectives with the available
resources in terms of money, manpower and the time limit required for the availability of
the survey.
2. Defining the Population, from which sample is chosen should be defined in clear and
unambiguous terms. The geographical, demographic and other boundaries of the
population must be specified so that no ambiguity arises regarding the coverage of the
survey.
3. Sampling Frame and Sampling Units The sampling unit is the ultimate unit to be sampled
for the purpose of the survey. The sampling units must cover the entire population and they
must be distinct, unambiguous and non-overlapping in the sense that every element of the
population belongs to one and only one sampling unit. In a Socio-economic survey,
whether a family or a member of a family is to be the ultimate sampling unit. Once the
sampling units are defined, one must see whether a sampling frame which is a list of all the
units in the population, is available. The construction of the frame is often one of the major
practical problem since it is the frame which determines the structure of the sample survey.
The list of units has to be carefully scrutinized and examined to ensures that it is free from
duplicity or incompleteness and are up-to date. A good frame is hard to come by and only
good experience helps to construct a good frame.
4. Selection of Proper Sampling Design This is the most important step in planning a sample
survey. There is a group of sampling designs (to be discussed later) and selection of the
proper one is an important task. The design should take into account the available resources
and the time limit, if any, besides the degree of accuracy desired. The cost and precision
should also be considered before the final selection of sampling design.
5. Method of Collection of Data For collection of data, either the interview method or the
mail questionnaire method is to be adopted. Although the later method is less costly but
there is a large scope of non-response in it. In the cases, where the information is to be
collected by observation they must decide upon the method of measurement.
6. Data to be Collected Collection of data must be done in conformity with the objectives of
the survey and the nature of the data. After it is decided upon, one must prepare a
questionnaire or a schedule of enquiry. A schedule or a questionnaire contains a list of
items of which information is sought, but the exact form of the questions to be asked is not

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 DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi Approved by AICTE; ISO 9001:2015
Certified Accredited by National Assessment Accreditation Council (NAAC) with ‘A’ grade
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078

standardized but left to the judgment of the investigators. A questionnaire should be in a

specified order. The questions should be clear, brief, collaborative, non-offending and
unambiguous and to the point so that not much scope of speculation is left on the part of
the respondent or interviewer.
7. Field Work Organization Field work, itself has several stages and so it is to be well
organized. The different stages include training the field workers, supervising the field
workers, etc. It is absolutely essential that the personnel should be Introduction to Sample
Surveys thoroughly trained in locating the sample units, the methods of collection of
required data before starting the field word. The success of a survey to a great extent
depends upon the reliable field work. Inspection after field work by the adequate
supervisors should also be performed.
8. Summary and Analysis of Data This is the last step wherein inference is to be made on the
basis of collected data. This step again consists of the following steps:
i. The filled in questionnaires should be carefully scrutinized to find out whether the
data furnished are plausible and consistent.
ii. Depending upon the quantity of data, a hand-tabulation or machine tabulation is to
be drawn.
iii. After the data has been properly scrutinized, edited and tabulated, a very careful
statistical analysis is to be made.
iv. Finally, a report incorporating detailed statement of the different stages of the
survey should be prepared. In the presentation of the result, it is advisable to report
technical aspects of the design.
Characteristics of good sample design
Firstly, a good sample design must result in a truly representative sample. This means that the
selected sample should accurately reflect the characteristics of the population from which it is
drawn. If the sample is not representative, any conclusions drawn from it cannot be reliably
generalized to the larger population, thereby undermining the purpose of the research. Achieving
representativeness often involves employing probability sampling methods, where every element
in the population has a known and non-zero chance of being selected.
Secondly, the sample design should aim to have a small sampling error. Sampling error refers to
the discrepancy between the sample statistic and the true population parameter. While some degree
of sampling error is inherent in any sample-based study, a good design minimizes this error through
appropriate techniques, such as increasing the sample size or using more efficient sampling
methods like stratified random sampling when the population is heterogeneous.
Thirdly, Kothari stresses the importance of controlling systematic bias. Systematic bias arises from
flaws in the sampling procedure itself, leading to a sample that consistently deviates from the
population in a particular direction. For instance, if a survey on consumer preferences is conducted

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An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi Approved by AICTE; ISO 9001:2015
Certified Accredited by National Assessment Accreditation Council (NAAC) with ‘A’ grade
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078

only among shoppers at high-end malls, it would introduce a bias towards higher-income
consumers. A well-designed sample plan proactively identifies and mitigates potential sources of
such biases to ensure the objectivity of the results.
Fourthly, a good sample design must be viable in the context of budget availability. Practical
considerations, including time and cost constraints, often influence the choice of sampling method
and sample size. While a larger and more complex sample might offer greater precision, it may
not be feasible within the given resources. Therefore, the design must strike a balance between
statistical rigor and practical implementability.
Finally, the sample should be such that the results of the study can be generalized with a reasonable
level of confidence. The ultimate goal of much research is to draw inferences about a larger
population based on the sample. A well-constructed sample design, particularly one based on
probability sampling, provides the statistical foundation necessary to make such generalizations
and to quantify the level of confidence associated with those inferences. In essence, a good sample
design serves as the bedrock for drawing credible and actionable conclusions from research.
Types of Sampling
Designs: According to the method of selection of sample, the sampling schemes can be categorized
as follows:
1. Non-probability sampling
2. Probability or random sampling and
3. Mixed sampling.

1. Non-Probability Sampling: In this method, the sample is selected with a definite purpose
in view and the choice of the sampling units depends entirely on the discretion and
judgment of the investigator. While selecting a sample, investigator tries to include each
and every characteristics of population in sample. Non-Probability Sampling scheme can
be classified as:
• Purposive Sampling In this sampling the sample is selected with definite purpose in
view and the choice of sampling units depends entirely on the discretion of the
surveyor. This sampling suffers from drawback of favoritism and nepotism of the
surveyor.
• Judgment Sampling In judgment sampling respondents are selected on the judgment of
the surveyor with the hope that they will meet requirements of the study. The underling
assumptions are that the respondent truly represents the entire population. To find out
the potential guide for the food and catering technology a researcher go to the teachers
of Hotel Management Department may be the example of judgment sampling.

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An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi Approved by AICTE; ISO 9001:2015
Certified Accredited by National Assessment Accreditation Council (NAAC) with ‘A’ grade
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078

• Deliberate Sampling In deliberate sampling, deliberate selection of sample is made so

that any important unit could not be left out.
• Convenience Sampling In convenience sampling method, a surveyor selects the sample
at his/her own convenience, often as the study is being conducted. Convenience
Statistical Techniques sampling is based on assumption that the target population is
homogeneous and the individuals selected and interviewed yields similar information
with regard to the characteristics under study. If persons selected from restaurants to
collect the information about quality of the food, service, etc. are supposed to represent
the population of food takers. Such a sampling is known as convenience sampling
• Quota Sampling If the cost of selected random samples in each stratum is very high in
stratified sampling then the sampling units are assigned in a quota (fixed number of
units) in each stratum and the actual selection of units is left at the decision of the
surveyor.
Merits of Non-Probability Sampling
This method of sampling is very simple;
• After sample size determination with the help of planning, a suitable sample may possibly
be obtained; and
• Important units or members may be included in the sample.
Demerits of Non-Probability Sampling
• Predetermined view of selector effects the selection of sample which impure the result.
• This effect does directly or indirectly on the process;
• There is no place for probability in selection of units therefore sampling error cannot be
• obtained;
• There is no guaranty of validity of the results from the sample selected by this method; and
• The attitude and biasedness of the investigator also affect the selection of sample that’s
why the results obtained by this method are not reliable scientifically.
2. Random or Probability Sampling: The technique of random sampling is of fundamental
importance in the application of Statistics. Probability sampling is the scientific method of
selecting samples accordingly to some laws of chance in which each unit in the population has
some definite pre-assigned probability of being selected in the sample.
Merits of Random or Probability Sampling
• No Plan for Selection There is no need to make any detailed plan for the selection of units.
• Less Expensive In this method, money, time and hard work are very less.
• Unbiased In this method there is no space for any biasedness. Every unit has same chance
of selection

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An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi Approved by AICTE; ISO 9001:2015
Certified Accredited by National Assessment Accreditation Council (NAAC) with ‘A’ grade
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078

• Inspection of Purity Inspection of purity of one sample can be done by another sample. In
this method measure of statistical error can also be done.
• Random Selection Selector has not to use his mind. He selects units at random.
• True Representation of Population In this method real characteristics can be represented
through sample because it is based on the law of statistical regularity and law of inertia. In
real, it becomes a small part of population.
Demerits of Random or Probability Sampling
• Inappropriate This method is not appropriate where some units are so important to be
included necessarily in the sample.
• Less Representative It may be possible that sample could not represent the population if
sample is not sufficiently large.
• Less Independency This method is useless if the units of the population are dependent.
Difference between Probability and Non-probability Sampling
• In non-probability sampling the selection of units are pre-decided whether in probability
sampling is based on chances.
• Non-probability sampling is biased but probability sampling is unbiased.
• In non-probability sampling, the errors are of cumulative in nature whereas in probability
sampling errors are less Statistical Techniques
• If a sample, from a population with homogeneous and important units, is to be selected
then non-probability sampling is appropriate where as probability sampling is used in
various kinds of population.
3. Mixed Sampling: If the samples are selected partly according to some laws of chance and
partly according to a fixed rule, they are called mixed samples and the method of selecting
such samples is known as mixed sampling. The merits of this sampling are the mixture of the
merits of both sampling. Selection of units is more reliable in this method because that is the
representation of various stages of population. In mixed sample no important characteristics is
left which is to be selected in the sample.
Measurement and Scaling:
Qualitative and Quantitative Data
Qualitative Quantitative
Concerned with understanding human Concerned with discovering facts
behavior from the informant's perspective about social phenomena
Conceptual
Assumes a fixed and measurable
Assumes a dynamic and negotiated reality
reality

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 DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi Approved by AICTE; ISO 9001:2015
Certified Accredited by National Assessment Accreditation Council (NAAC) with ‘A’ grade
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078

Data are collected through participant Data are collected through measuring
observation and interviews things
Data are analyzed by themes from Data are analyzed through numerical
Methodological
descriptions by informants comparisons and statistical inferences
Data are reported in the language of the Data are reported through statistical
informant analyses

Data Collection
Methods of Data Collection: There are two types of data
• Primary Data— collected for the first time
• Secondary Data—those which have already been collected and analyzed by someone else.
Methods of Primary Data Collection
OBSERVATION METHOD: Commonly used in behavioral sciences It is the gathering of
primary data by investigator’s own direct observation of relevant people, actions and situations
without asking from the respondent. e.g. • A hotel chain sends observers posing as guests into its
coffee shop to check on cleanliness and customer service. • A food service operator sends
researchers into competing restaurants to learn menu items prices, check portion sizes and
consistency and observe point-of purchase merchandising. • A restaurant evaluates possible new
locations by checking out locations of competing restaurants, traffic patterns and neighborhood
conditions. Observation can yield information which people are normally unwilling or unable to
provide. e.g. Observing numerous plates containing uneaten portions the same menu items
indicates that food is not satisfactory.
Types of Observation:
1. Structured – for descriptive research
2. Unstructured—for exploratory research
3. Participant Observation
4. Non- participant observation
5. Disguised observation
Limitations: - feelings, beliefs and attitudes that motivate buying behavior and infrequent behavior
cannot be observed. - expensive method Because of these limitations, researchers often supplement
observation with survey research.
SURVEY METHOD Approach most suited for gathering descriptive information.

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An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi Approved by AICTE; ISO 9001:2015
Certified Accredited by National Assessment Accreditation Council (NAAC) with ‘A’ grade
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078

• Structured Surveys: use formal lists of questions asked of all respondents in the same
way.
• Unstructured Surveys: let the interviewer probe respondents and guide the interview
according to their answers. Survey research may be Direct or Indirect. Direct
Approach: The researcher asks direct questions about behaviours and thoughts. e.g.
Why don’t you eat at MacDonalds? Indirect Approach: The researcher might ask:
“What kind of people eat at MacDonald’s?” From the response, the researcher may be
able to discover why the consumer avoids MacDonald’s. It may suggest factors of
which the consumer is not consciously aware.
ADVANTAGES: -can be used to collect many different kinds of information -Quick and low cost
as compared to observation and experimental method.
LIMITATIONS: -Respondent’s reluctance to answer questions asked by unknown interviewers
about things they consider private. -Busy people may not want to take the time -may try to help by
giving pleasant answers -unable to answer because they cannot remember or never gave a thought
to what they do and why -may answer in order to look smart or well informed.
CONTACT METHODS: Information may be collected by Mail, Telephone, Personal interview
Mail Questionnaires:
Advantages:
• Can be used to collect large amounts of information at a low cost per respondent.
respondents may give more honest answers to personal questions on a mail questionnaire
• No interviewer is involved to bias the respondent’s answers.
• Convenient for respondent’s who can answer when they have time - good way to reach
people who often travel
Limitations:
• Not flexible
• Take longer to complete than telephone or personal interview -response rate is often very
low
• researcher has no control over who answers.
Telephone Interviewing:
• quick method
• more flexible as interviewer can explain questions not understood by the respondent
• depending on respondent’s answer they can skip some Qs and probe more on others
• allows greater sample control – response rate tends to be higher than mail

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 DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi Approved by AICTE; ISO 9001:2015
Certified Accredited by National Assessment Accreditation Council (NAAC) with ‘A’ grade
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078

Drawbacks:
• Cost per respondent higher
• Some people may not want to discuss personal Qs with interviewer
• Interviewer’s manner of speaking may affect the respondent’s answers
• Different interviewers may interpret and record response in a variety of ways
• under time pressure ,data may be entered without actually interviewing
Personal Interviewing: It is very flexible and can be used to collect large amounts of information.
Trained interviewers are can hold the respondent’s attention and are available to clarify difficult
questions. They can guide interviews, explore issues, and probe as the situation requires. Personal
interview can be used in any type of questionnaire and can be conducted fairly quickly.
Interviewers can also show actual products, advertisements, packages and observe and record their
reactions and behaviour. This takes two forms-
Individual- Intercept interviewing Group –
Focus Group Interviewing Intercept interviewing: Widely used in tourism research. -allows
researcher to reach known people in a short period of time. - only method of reaching people whose
names and addresses are unknown -involves talking to people at homes, offices, on the street, or
in shopping malls. -interviewer must gain the interviewee’s cooperation -time involved may range
from a few minutes to several hours( for longer surveys compensation may be offered) –involves
the use of judgmental sampling i.e. interviewer has guidelines as to whom to “intercept”, such as
25% under age 20 and 75% over age 60
Drawbacks: -Room for error and bias on the part of the interviewer who may not be able to
correctly judge age, race etc. -Interviewer may be uncomfortable talking to certain ethnic or age
groups.
Focus Group Interviewing: It is rapidly becoming one of the major research tool to understand
people’s thoughts and feelings. It is usually conducted by inviting six to ten people to gather for a
few hours with a trained moderator to talk about a product, service or [Link] meeting is
held in a pleasant place, and refreshments are served to create a relaxed environment. The
moderator needs objectivity, knowledge of the subject and industry, and some understanding of
group and consumer behaviour. The moderator starts with a broad question before moving to more
specific issues, encouraging open and easy discussion to bring out true feelings and thoughts. At
the same time, the interviewer focuses the discussion, hence the name focus group interviewing.
often held to help determine the subject areas on which questions should be asked in a later,
largescale, structured-direct interview Comments are recorded through note taking or videotaped
and studied later to understand consumer’ buying process. This method is especially suited for
managers of hotels and restaurants, who have easy access to their customers. e.g. Some hotel
managers often invite a group of hotel guests from a particular market segment to have a free

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 DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi Approved by AICTE; ISO 9001:2015
Certified Accredited by National Assessment Accreditation Council (NAAC) with ‘A’ grade
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078

breakfast with them. Managers get the chance to meet the guests and discuss what they like about
the hotel and what the hotel could do to make their stay more enjoyable and comfortable. The
guests appreciate this recognition and the manager gets valuable information. Restaurant managers
use the same approach by holding discussion meetings over lunch or dinner.
Drawbacks: -Cost: may cost more than telephone survey -Sampling: group interview studies keep
small sample size to keep time and cost down, therefore it may be difficult to generalize from the
results. - Interviewer bias.
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD Also called Empirical Research or Cause and Effect Method, it
is a data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified with
observation or experiment. Experimental research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain
variables affect other variables in some way. e.g. -Tenderizers ( independent variable) affect
cooking time and texture of meat( dependent variable) . - The effect of substituting one ingredient
in whole or in part for another such as soya flour to flour for making high protein bread. -Develop
recipes to use products. Such research is characterized by the experimenter’s control over the
variables under study and the deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects. In such a
research, it is necessary to get at facts first hand, at their source, and actively go about doing certain
things to stimulate the production of desired information. -Researcher must provide self with a
working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. - Then work to get enough facts (data) to
prove or disprove the hypothesis. -He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will
manipulate the persons or the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information.
Evidence gathered through experimental or empirical studies today is considered to be the most
powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.
Testing of Hypotheses:

A hypothesis test is a formal way to make a decision based on statistical analysis. Hypotheses.
Hypothesis tests are tests about a population parameter.

Characteristics of hypothesis: Hypothesis must possess the following characteristics:

1. Hypothesis should be clear and precise. If the hypothesis is not clear and
precise, the inferences drawn on its basis cannot be taken as reliable.
2. Hypothesis should be capable of being tested. In a swamp of untestable
hypotheses, many a time the research programmes have bogged down.
Some prior study may be done by researcher in order to make hypothesis a
testable one. A hypothesis “is testable if other deductions can be made from
it which, in turn, can be confirmed or disproved by observation.”
3. Hypothesis should state relationship between variables, if it happens to be a

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 DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi Approved by AICTE; ISO 9001:2015
Certified Accredited by National Assessment Accreditation Council (NAAC) with ‘A’ grade
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078

relational hypothesis.
4. Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific. A researcher
must remember that narrower hypotheses are generally more testable and
he should develop such hypotheses.
5. Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms so that
the same is easily understandable by all concerned. But one must remember
that simplicity of hypothesis has nothing to do with its significance.
6. Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts i.e., it must be
consistent with a substantial body of established facts. In other words, it
should be one which judges accept as being the most likely.
7. Hypothesis should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time. One
should not use even an excellent hypothesis, if the same cannot be tested in
reasonable time for one cannot spend a life-time collecting data to test it.
8. Hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation.
This means that by using the hypothesis plus other known and accepted
generalizations, one should be able to deduce the original problem
condition. Thus hypothesis must actually explain what it claims to explain;
it should have empirical reference.
The null hypothesis (H0) is a statement involving equality (=, ≤, ≥) about a population
parameter.
The alternative hypothesis (Ha) is a statement that contradicts the null hypothesis.
The alternative hypothesis is what we conclude is true if the experimental results
lead us to conclude that the null
hypothesis (our assumption) is false. The alternative hypothesis must not involve
equality (6=, ). The exact statement of the null and alternative hypotheses depend on
the claim that you are testing.

We decide to reject the null hypothesis if the sample outcome contradicts our
assumption. The logic is as follows:
1. To make this decision we calculate the p-value := the probability of our
sample outcome or something more extreme occuring ASSUMING the null
hypothesis is true.
2. If the p-value is very small, our sample outcome was very unlikely (a “rare
event”) based on our assumption, so we reject our assumption.
3. Recall that our assumption is based on the null hypothesis, so rejecting the
assumption is the same as rejecting the null hypothesis.
4. The smaller the p-value, the larger (in absolute value) the z/t-score, so an

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 DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi Approved by AICTE; ISO 9001:2015
Certified Accredited by National Assessment Accreditation Council (NAAC) with ‘A’ grade
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078

“unusual” z/t-score gives us a hint about the p-value.

5. Example : Skittles. Our null hypothesis (assumption) is that a bag of Skittles
contains 95% orange Skittles (and the rest are green), because that is written
on the label. We reach in a hand and pull out a big handful of Skittles. They
are all green! • Describe the p-value in words.
6. We can’t get the exact p-value, but what do you estimate it to be? • Should
we decide to “reject” or “not to reject” our assumption (null hypothesis) that
the bag contains 95% orange Skittles? Disclaimer: This scenario is a
complete fabrication. Skittles are fabulous.
7. . Decision. How small must the p-value be to reject the null hypothesis?
This can change and is set by the significance level, α, which will be
provided in each problem. Common significance levels are 0.01, or 1 100 ,
and 0.05, or 5 100 .
8. The decision process is as follows:
9. If p-value < α, reject the null hypothesis. (Our outcome contradicts the assumption.)
10. If p-value ≥ α, do not reject the null hypothesis. (Our outcome seems
reasonable based on the assumption.)
Skipper, p 6 This silly little rhyme is from the Triola textbook “Elementary
Statistics” and has been helpful to many students: “If the p is low, the null must go.
If the p is high, the null will fly.”
Confidence intervals allowed us to find ranges of reasonable values for parameters
we were interested in. Hypothesis testing will let us make decisions about specific
values of parameters or relationships between parameters.
1. π - population proportion
2. µ - population mean
3. µ1 −µ2 - difference in population means (example: compare average heights of men and women)
4. µd - population mean difference (for paired data) (example: compare average
heights of fathers and sons)
5. π1 − π2 - difference in population proportions

You will need to be able to distinguish these settings from each other. Notably, to
distinguish proportion settings from mean settings, think about the question being
asked. Are responses to the question of interest yes or no? If so, you are dealing with
proportions. If the response is a numerical value, you are dealing with means.
In hypothesis testing, we use sample data to choose between two competing
hypotheses. Think of it like a jury trial. There are two options: innocent and guilty.
You assume innocence until shown guilty beyond a reasonable doubt. In hypothesis
testing, there are 2 choices, the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis. You

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 DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi Approved by AICTE; ISO 9001:2015
Certified Accredited by National Assessment Accreditation Council (NAAC) with ‘A’ grade
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078

assume the null hypothesis is true until the alternative is shown beyond “chance”.
Hypothesis - a claim about a population characteristic (parameter)
Null Hypothesis - the status quo - initially assumed true
Alternative Hypothesis - the researcher’s proposal - what you hope to show Main idea:

Reject the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative only with convincing/significant evidence.
We do NOT say that we accept the alternative, only that we have significant evidence to reject the
null. This is because we could have made a mistake.
• Forms of Hypotheses:
• Null Hypothesis: H0 : population parameter = some hypothesized value Alternative
Hypothesis:
• HA : population parameter is not equal to that same hypothesized value two-sided) OR
HA : population parameter > that same hypothesized value (one-sided to the right) OR
HA : population parameter < that same hypothesized value (one-sided to the left)

Procedure for hypotheses testing flow diagram for hypotheses testing.

This procedure is fundamental to empirical research, allowing researchers to make informed

decisions about population parameters based on sample data.

The process typically begins with stating the null hypothesis (H0) and the alternative
hypothesis (H1). The null hypothesis is a statement of no effect, no difference, or no relationship,
often representing the status quo or a commonly held belief. The alternative hypothesis,
conversely, is the statement the researcher is trying to prove, suggesting a specific effect,
difference, or relationship. These hypotheses must be mutually exclusive and exhaustive.

The next critical step involves setting the level of significance (alpha, α). This is the maximum
probability of committing a Type I error, which is the error of rejecting a true null hypothesis.
Commonly, α is set at 0.05 (5%) or 0.01 (1%), meaning there's a 5% or 1% chance, respectively,
of incorrectly concluding there's an effect when there isn't. The choice of α reflects the researcher's
tolerance for this type of error.

Following this, the researcher must decide the correct sampling distribution and select an
appropriate statistical test. The choice depends on several factors, including the type of data
(e.g., nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio), the size of the sample, whether the population standard
deviation is known, and the nature of the hypothesis (e.g., comparing means, proportions, or
variances). Kothari discusses various tests like the Z-test, t-test, F-test, and Chi-square test, each
with specific assumptions and applications.

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 DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi Approved by AICTE; ISO 9001:2015
Certified Accredited by National Assessment Accreditation Council (NAAC) with ‘A’ grade
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078

The subsequent step involves calculating the test statistic from the sample data. This involves
applying the chosen statistical formula to the collected observations. This calculated value
represents how far the sample result deviates from what would be expected under the null
hypothesis.

Once the test statistic is calculated, it is compared to a critical value obtained from the chosen
sampling distribution, or alternatively, the p-value associated with the calculated test statistic is
determined. The critical value defines the rejection region(s) – the range of values for the test
statistic that would lead to the rejection of the null hypothesis. The p-value, on the other hand, is
the probability of obtaining a test statistic as extreme as, or more extreme than, the one calculated
from the sample, assuming the null hypothesis is true.

Finally, a decision is made: if the calculated test statistic falls into the critical region, or if the p-
value is less than the predetermined level of significance (α), the null hypothesis is rejected. This
implies that there is sufficient statistical evidence to support the alternative hypothesis. If the test
statistic does not fall into the critical region, or if the p-value is greater than α, the null hypothesis
is not rejected, meaning there is insufficient evidence to conclude in favor of the alternative
hypothesis. It's crucial to note that "not rejecting" the null hypothesis does not equate to
"accepting" it; it simply means the data do not provide strong enough evidence against it. This
systematic procedure ensures that decisions regarding hypotheses are made on a statistical basis,
minimizing subjective judgment.

18
 DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
An Autonomous Institute Affiliated to VTU, Belagavi Approved by AICTE; ISO 9001:2015
Certified Accredited by National Assessment Accreditation Council (NAAC) with ‘A’ grade
Shavige Malleshwara Hills, Kumaraswamy Layout, Bengaluru-560078

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