BCA – Comprehensive SQL Lecture Notes
1. Introduction to SQL
Definition: SQL (Structured Query Language) is the standard language used to create, manage,
and retrieve data from relational databases.
Why SQL is used:
• Store and organize data.
• Retrieve information quickly.
• Maintain consistency and integrity.
Features:
• Easy to learn.
• ANSI/ISO standard.
• Supports relational databases.
• Used in Oracle, MySQL, SQL Server, PostgreSQL.
Example:
SELECT * FROM Student;
Advantages:
• Fast querying
• Security
• Data independence
Exam Definition:
SQL is a standardized language used to communicate with relational database systems.
Definition: SQL (Structured Query Language) is the standard language used to create, manage,
and retrieve data from relational databases.
Why SQL is used:
• Store and organize data.
• Retrieve information quickly.
• Maintain consistency and integrity.
Features:
• Easy to learn.
• ANSI/ISO standard.
• Supports relational databases.
• Used in Oracle, MySQL, SQL Server, PostgreSQL.
Example:
SELECT * FROM Student;
Advantages:
• Fast querying
• Security
• Data independence
Exam Definition:
SQL is a standardized language used to communicate with relational database systems.
Definition: SQL (Structured Query Language) is the standard language used to create, manage,
and retrieve data from relational databases.
Why SQL is used:
• Store and organize data.
• Retrieve information quickly.
• Maintain consistency and integrity.
Features:
• Easy to learn.
• ANSI/ISO standard.
• Supports relational databases.
• Used in Oracle, MySQL, SQL Server, PostgreSQL.
Example:
SELECT * FROM Student;
Advantages:
• Fast querying
• Security
• Data independence
Exam Definition:
SQL is a standardized language used to communicate with relational database systems.
2. SQL Commands Classification
SQL commands are divided into DDL, DML, DQL, DCL and TCL.
DDL (Data Definition Language):
CREATE, ALTER, DROP, TRUNCATE.
DML (Data Manipulation Language):
INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE.
DQL (Data Query Language):
SELECT.
DCL (Data Control Language):
GRANT, REVOKE.
TCL (Transaction Control Language):
COMMIT, ROLLBACK, SAVEPOINT.
Comparison Table:
DDL defines structure whereas DML manipulates data.
Examples:
CREATE TABLE Student(...);
INSERT INTO Student VALUES(...);
SELECT * FROM Student;
SQL commands are divided into DDL, DML, DQL, DCL and TCL.
DDL (Data Definition Language):
CREATE, ALTER, DROP, TRUNCATE.
DML (Data Manipulation Language):
INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE.
DQL (Data Query Language):
SELECT.
DCL (Data Control Language):
GRANT, REVOKE.
TCL (Transaction Control Language):
COMMIT, ROLLBACK, SAVEPOINT.
Comparison Table:
DDL defines structure whereas DML manipulates data.
Examples:
CREATE TABLE Student(...);
INSERT INTO Student VALUES(...);
SELECT * FROM Student;
SQL commands are divided into DDL, DML, DQL, DCL and TCL.
DDL (Data Definition Language):
CREATE, ALTER, DROP, TRUNCATE.
DML (Data Manipulation Language):
INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE.
DQL (Data Query Language):
SELECT.
DCL (Data Control Language):
GRANT, REVOKE.
TCL (Transaction Control Language):
COMMIT, ROLLBACK, SAVEPOINT.
Comparison Table:
DDL defines structure whereas DML manipulates data.
Examples:
CREATE TABLE Student(...);
INSERT INTO Student VALUES(...);
SELECT * FROM Student;
3. Data Types in SQL
Definition:
Data types specify the type of data that can be stored in a column.
Numeric Types:
INT, NUMBER, FLOAT, DECIMAL.
Character Types:
CHAR, VARCHAR, VARCHAR2.
Date Types:
DATE, TIMESTAMP.
Example:
CREATE TABLE Employee(
EmpID INT,
EmpName VARCHAR(50),
Salary FLOAT,
DOB DATE
);
Importance:
Improves storage efficiency and data validation.
Definition:
Data types specify the type of data that can be stored in a column.
Numeric Types:
INT, NUMBER, FLOAT, DECIMAL.
Character Types:
CHAR, VARCHAR, VARCHAR2.
Date Types:
DATE, TIMESTAMP.
Example:
CREATE TABLE Employee(
EmpID INT,
EmpName VARCHAR(50),
Salary FLOAT,
DOB DATE
);
Importance:
Improves storage efficiency and data validation.
Definition:
Data types specify the type of data that can be stored in a column.
Numeric Types:
INT, NUMBER, FLOAT, DECIMAL.
Character Types:
CHAR, VARCHAR, VARCHAR2.
Date Types:
DATE, TIMESTAMP.
Example:
CREATE TABLE Employee(
EmpID INT,
EmpName VARCHAR(50),
Salary FLOAT,
DOB DATE
);
Importance:
Improves storage efficiency and data validation.
Definition:
Data types specify the type of data that can be stored in a column.
Numeric Types:
INT, NUMBER, FLOAT, DECIMAL.
Character Types:
CHAR, VARCHAR, VARCHAR2.
Date Types:
DATE, TIMESTAMP.
Example:
CREATE TABLE Employee(
EmpID INT,
EmpName VARCHAR(50),
Salary FLOAT,
DOB DATE
);
Importance:
Improves storage efficiency and data validation.
4. Data Definition Language (DDL)
Definition:
DDL commands define and modify database structures.
CREATE:
CREATE TABLE Student(
RollNo INT,
Name VARCHAR(30),
Marks INT
);
ALTER:
ALTER TABLE Student ADD Address VARCHAR(50);
DROP:
DROP TABLE Student;
TRUNCATE:
TRUNCATE TABLE Student;
Difference Between DROP and TRUNCATE:
DROP removes table structure and data.
TRUNCATE removes only data.
Definition:
DDL commands define and modify database structures.
CREATE:
CREATE TABLE Student(
RollNo INT,
Name VARCHAR(30),
Marks INT
);
ALTER:
ALTER TABLE Student ADD Address VARCHAR(50);
DROP:
DROP TABLE Student;
TRUNCATE:
TRUNCATE TABLE Student;
Difference Between DROP and TRUNCATE:
DROP removes table structure and data.
TRUNCATE removes only data.
Definition:
DDL commands define and modify database structures.
CREATE:
CREATE TABLE Student(
RollNo INT,
Name VARCHAR(30),
Marks INT
);
ALTER:
ALTER TABLE Student ADD Address VARCHAR(50);
DROP:
DROP TABLE Student;
TRUNCATE:
TRUNCATE TABLE Student;
Difference Between DROP and TRUNCATE:
DROP removes table structure and data.
TRUNCATE removes only data.
Definition:
DDL commands define and modify database structures.
CREATE:
CREATE TABLE Student(
RollNo INT,
Name VARCHAR(30),
Marks INT
);
ALTER:
ALTER TABLE Student ADD Address VARCHAR(50);
DROP:
DROP TABLE Student;
TRUNCATE:
TRUNCATE TABLE Student;
Difference Between DROP and TRUNCATE:
DROP removes table structure and data.
TRUNCATE removes only data.
Definition:
DDL commands define and modify database structures.
CREATE:
CREATE TABLE Student(
RollNo INT,
Name VARCHAR(30),
Marks INT
);
ALTER:
ALTER TABLE Student ADD Address VARCHAR(50);
DROP:
DROP TABLE Student;
TRUNCATE:
TRUNCATE TABLE Student;
Difference Between DROP and TRUNCATE:
DROP removes table structure and data.
TRUNCATE removes only data.
5. Selection Operation
Definition:
Selection retrieves rows satisfying a condition.
Syntax:
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Marks > 80;
Examples:
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Name='Ravi';
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Marks BETWEEN 70 AND 90;
Operators:
=, >, <, >=, <=, <>.
Applications:
Filtering records based on conditions.
Definition:
Selection retrieves rows satisfying a condition.
Syntax:
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Marks > 80;
Examples:
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Name='Ravi';
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Marks BETWEEN 70 AND 90;
Operators:
=, >, <, >=, <=, <>.
Applications:
Filtering records based on conditions.
Definition:
Selection retrieves rows satisfying a condition.
Syntax:
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Marks > 80;
Examples:
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Name='Ravi';
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Marks BETWEEN 70 AND 90;
Operators:
=, >, <, >=, <=, <>.
Applications:
Filtering records based on conditions.
Definition:
Selection retrieves rows satisfying a condition.
Syntax:
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Marks > 80;
Examples:
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Name='Ravi';
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Marks BETWEEN 70 AND 90;
Operators:
=, >, <, >=, <=, <>.
Applications:
Filtering records based on conditions.
6. Projection Operation
Definition:
Projection retrieves specific columns from a table.
Example:
SELECT Name, Marks FROM Student;
Benefits:
Reduces unnecessary data retrieval.
Improves readability.
Examples:
SELECT Name FROM Student;
SELECT RollNo, Name FROM Student;
Definition:
Projection retrieves specific columns from a table.
Example:
SELECT Name, Marks FROM Student;
Benefits:
Reduces unnecessary data retrieval.
Improves readability.
Examples:
SELECT Name FROM Student;
SELECT RollNo, Name FROM Student;
Definition:
Projection retrieves specific columns from a table.
Example:
SELECT Name, Marks FROM Student;
Benefits:
Reduces unnecessary data retrieval.
Improves readability.
Examples:
SELECT Name FROM Student;
SELECT RollNo, Name FROM Student;
Definition:
Projection retrieves specific columns from a table.
Example:
SELECT Name, Marks FROM Student;
Benefits:
Reduces unnecessary data retrieval.
Improves readability.
Examples:
SELECT Name FROM Student;
SELECT RollNo, Name FROM Student;
7. Aggregate Functions
Definition:
Aggregate functions perform calculations on a group of values.
COUNT():
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM Student;
SUM():
SELECT SUM(Marks) FROM Student;
AVG():
SELECT AVG(Marks) FROM Student;
MAX():
SELECT MAX(Marks) FROM Student;
MIN():
SELECT MIN(Marks) FROM Student;
GROUP BY and HAVING examples are important for exams.
Definition:
Aggregate functions perform calculations on a group of values.
COUNT():
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM Student;
SUM():
SELECT SUM(Marks) FROM Student;
AVG():
SELECT AVG(Marks) FROM Student;
MAX():
SELECT MAX(Marks) FROM Student;
MIN():
SELECT MIN(Marks) FROM Student;
GROUP BY and HAVING examples are important for exams.
Definition:
Aggregate functions perform calculations on a group of values.
COUNT():
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM Student;
SUM():
SELECT SUM(Marks) FROM Student;
AVG():
SELECT AVG(Marks) FROM Student;
MAX():
SELECT MAX(Marks) FROM Student;
MIN():
SELECT MIN(Marks) FROM Student;
GROUP BY and HAVING examples are important for exams.
Definition:
Aggregate functions perform calculations on a group of values.
COUNT():
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM Student;
SUM():
SELECT SUM(Marks) FROM Student;
AVG():
SELECT AVG(Marks) FROM Student;
MAX():
SELECT MAX(Marks) FROM Student;
MIN():
SELECT MIN(Marks) FROM Student;
GROUP BY and HAVING examples are important for exams.
Definition:
Aggregate functions perform calculations on a group of values.
COUNT():
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM Student;
SUM():
SELECT SUM(Marks) FROM Student;
AVG():
SELECT AVG(Marks) FROM Student;
MAX():
SELECT MAX(Marks) FROM Student;
MIN():
SELECT MIN(Marks) FROM Student;
GROUP BY and HAVING examples are important for exams.
8. Data Manipulation Language (DML)
Definition:
DML commands manipulate table data.
INSERT:
INSERT INTO Student VALUES(1,'Ravi',85);
UPDATE:
UPDATE Student SET Marks=90 WHERE RollNo=1;
DELETE:
DELETE FROM Student WHERE RollNo=1;
Differences:
INSERT adds records.
UPDATE modifies records.
DELETE removes records.
Definition:
DML commands manipulate table data.
INSERT:
INSERT INTO Student VALUES(1,'Ravi',85);
UPDATE:
UPDATE Student SET Marks=90 WHERE RollNo=1;
DELETE:
DELETE FROM Student WHERE RollNo=1;
Differences:
INSERT adds records.
UPDATE modifies records.
DELETE removes records.
Definition:
DML commands manipulate table data.
INSERT:
INSERT INTO Student VALUES(1,'Ravi',85);
UPDATE:
UPDATE Student SET Marks=90 WHERE RollNo=1;
DELETE:
DELETE FROM Student WHERE RollNo=1;
Differences:
INSERT adds records.
UPDATE modifies records.
DELETE removes records.
Definition:
DML commands manipulate table data.
INSERT:
INSERT INTO Student VALUES(1,'Ravi',85);
UPDATE:
UPDATE Student SET Marks=90 WHERE RollNo=1;
DELETE:
DELETE FROM Student WHERE RollNo=1;
Differences:
INSERT adds records.
UPDATE modifies records.
DELETE removes records.
Definition:
DML commands manipulate table data.
INSERT:
INSERT INTO Student VALUES(1,'Ravi',85);
UPDATE:
UPDATE Student SET Marks=90 WHERE RollNo=1;
DELETE:
DELETE FROM Student WHERE RollNo=1;
Differences:
INSERT adds records.
UPDATE modifies records.
DELETE removes records.
9. Table Modification Commands
ALTER TABLE is used to modify existing table structure.
Add Column:
ALTER TABLE Student ADD Phone VARCHAR(15);
Modify Column:
ALTER TABLE Student MODIFY Name VARCHAR(50);
Drop Column:
ALTER TABLE Student DROP COLUMN Phone;
Rename Table:
ALTER TABLE Student RENAME TO Students;
ALTER TABLE is used to modify existing table structure.
Add Column:
ALTER TABLE Student ADD Phone VARCHAR(15);
Modify Column:
ALTER TABLE Student MODIFY Name VARCHAR(50);
Drop Column:
ALTER TABLE Student DROP COLUMN Phone;
Rename Table:
ALTER TABLE Student RENAME TO Students;
ALTER TABLE is used to modify existing table structure.
Add Column:
ALTER TABLE Student ADD Phone VARCHAR(15);
Modify Column:
ALTER TABLE Student MODIFY Name VARCHAR(50);
Drop Column:
ALTER TABLE Student DROP COLUMN Phone;
Rename Table:
ALTER TABLE Student RENAME TO Students;
ALTER TABLE is used to modify existing table structure.
Add Column:
ALTER TABLE Student ADD Phone VARCHAR(15);
Modify Column:
ALTER TABLE Student MODIFY Name VARCHAR(50);
Drop Column:
ALTER TABLE Student DROP COLUMN Phone;
Rename Table:
ALTER TABLE Student RENAME TO Students;
10. Join Operations
Definition:
Joins combine rows from multiple tables.
INNER JOIN:
Returns matching rows.
LEFT JOIN:
Returns all rows from left table.
RIGHT JOIN:
Returns all rows from right table.
FULL JOIN:
Returns all matching and nonmatching rows.
SELF JOIN:
A table joined with itself.
Detailed syntax and examples should be practiced.
Definition:
Joins combine rows from multiple tables.
INNER JOIN:
Returns matching rows.
LEFT JOIN:
Returns all rows from left table.
RIGHT JOIN:
Returns all rows from right table.
FULL JOIN:
Returns all matching and nonmatching rows.
SELF JOIN:
A table joined with itself.
Detailed syntax and examples should be practiced.
Definition:
Joins combine rows from multiple tables.
INNER JOIN:
Returns matching rows.
LEFT JOIN:
Returns all rows from left table.
RIGHT JOIN:
Returns all rows from right table.
FULL JOIN:
Returns all matching and nonmatching rows.
SELF JOIN:
A table joined with itself.
Detailed syntax and examples should be practiced.
Definition:
Joins combine rows from multiple tables.
INNER JOIN:
Returns matching rows.
LEFT JOIN:
Returns all rows from left table.
RIGHT JOIN:
Returns all rows from right table.
FULL JOIN:
Returns all matching and nonmatching rows.
SELF JOIN:
A table joined with itself.
Detailed syntax and examples should be practiced.
Definition:
Joins combine rows from multiple tables.
INNER JOIN:
Returns matching rows.
LEFT JOIN:
Returns all rows from left table.
RIGHT JOIN:
Returns all rows from right table.
FULL JOIN:
Returns all matching and nonmatching rows.
SELF JOIN:
A table joined with itself.
Detailed syntax and examples should be practiced.
Definition:
Joins combine rows from multiple tables.
INNER JOIN:
Returns matching rows.
LEFT JOIN:
Returns all rows from left table.
RIGHT JOIN:
Returns all rows from right table.
FULL JOIN:
Returns all matching and nonmatching rows.
SELF JOIN:
A table joined with itself.
Detailed syntax and examples should be practiced.
11. Set Operations
UNION:
Combines results and removes duplicates.
UNION ALL:
Combines results and retains duplicates.
INTERSECT:
Returns common records.
MINUS:
Returns records present in first query only.
Examples:
SELECT Name FROM A
UNION
SELECT Name FROM B;
UNION:
Combines results and removes duplicates.
UNION ALL:
Combines results and retains duplicates.
INTERSECT:
Returns common records.
MINUS:
Returns records present in first query only.
Examples:
SELECT Name FROM A
UNION
SELECT Name FROM B;
UNION:
Combines results and removes duplicates.
UNION ALL:
Combines results and retains duplicates.
INTERSECT:
Returns common records.
MINUS:
Returns records present in first query only.
Examples:
SELECT Name FROM A
UNION
SELECT Name FROM B;
UNION:
Combines results and removes duplicates.
UNION ALL:
Combines results and retains duplicates.
INTERSECT:
Returns common records.
MINUS:
Returns records present in first query only.
Examples:
SELECT Name FROM A
UNION
SELECT Name FROM B;
12. Views
Definition:
A view is a virtual table based on a query.
Create View:
CREATE VIEW HighMarks AS
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Marks > 80;
Advantages:
Security.
Simplified queries.
Data abstraction.
Drop View:
DROP VIEW HighMarks;
Definition:
A view is a virtual table based on a query.
Create View:
CREATE VIEW HighMarks AS
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Marks > 80;
Advantages:
Security.
Simplified queries.
Data abstraction.
Drop View:
DROP VIEW HighMarks;
Definition:
A view is a virtual table based on a query.
Create View:
CREATE VIEW HighMarks AS
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Marks > 80;
Advantages:
Security.
Simplified queries.
Data abstraction.
Drop View:
DROP VIEW HighMarks;
Definition:
A view is a virtual table based on a query.
Create View:
CREATE VIEW HighMarks AS
SELECT * FROM Student WHERE Marks > 80;
Advantages:
Security.
Simplified queries.
Data abstraction.
Drop View:
DROP VIEW HighMarks;
13. Sub Queries
Definition:
A query written inside another query.
Single Row Subquery:
SELECT Name FROM Student
WHERE Marks=(SELECT MAX(Marks) FROM Student);
Multiple Row Subquery:
SELECT Name FROM Student
WHERE Marks IN(
SELECT Marks FROM Student WHERE Marks>80);
Correlated Subquery:
Executed once for each row of outer query.
Definition:
A query written inside another query.
Single Row Subquery:
SELECT Name FROM Student
WHERE Marks=(SELECT MAX(Marks) FROM Student);
Multiple Row Subquery:
SELECT Name FROM Student
WHERE Marks IN(
SELECT Marks FROM Student WHERE Marks>80);
Correlated Subquery:
Executed once for each row of outer query.
Definition:
A query written inside another query.
Single Row Subquery:
SELECT Name FROM Student
WHERE Marks=(SELECT MAX(Marks) FROM Student);
Multiple Row Subquery:
SELECT Name FROM Student
WHERE Marks IN(
SELECT Marks FROM Student WHERE Marks>80);
Correlated Subquery:
Executed once for each row of outer query.
Definition:
A query written inside another query.
Single Row Subquery:
SELECT Name FROM Student
WHERE Marks=(SELECT MAX(Marks) FROM Student);
Multiple Row Subquery:
SELECT Name FROM Student
WHERE Marks IN(
SELECT Marks FROM Student WHERE Marks>80);
Correlated Subquery:
Executed once for each row of outer query.
Definition:
A query written inside another query.
Single Row Subquery:
SELECT Name FROM Student
WHERE Marks=(SELECT MAX(Marks) FROM Student);
Multiple Row Subquery:
SELECT Name FROM Student
WHERE Marks IN(
SELECT Marks FROM Student WHERE Marks>80);
Correlated Subquery:
Executed once for each row of outer query.
Important Viva Questions
1. Explain SQL concept with example.
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Model University Questions
Long Answer Question 1: Discuss SQL topic in detail with syntax and examples.
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