Classification (ll)of living things

Form three notes unit one

There are over five million different kinds of living organisms on earth today. But only about two million
of them have been identified and named by scientists to date. Not all organisms have been discovered.1

Definition of Classification

Classification is the process of placing and organising organisms into groups according to their
similarities and differences in structure and the ancestral origin showing their biological relationship. 1

Types of Classification

There are two types of classification:

• Natural classification

• Artificial classification

[Link] classification

Natural classification is grouping of organisms based on natural relationships between organisms

[Link] classification or modern

classification is based on one or a few easily observable features and is usually designed for a practical
purpose with an emphasis on simplicity and convenience. It does not take into account the important
natural relationships. An example of artificial classification is grouping different types of fish regardless
of their natural environment. 1

Necessity/ Significant of Classification

• To help in the identification of living organisms into their correct groups for easier reference.

• To help us arrange the information about living organisms in an orderly manner to avoid chaos and
confusion which would arise if done arbitrarily.

• To help us understand the evolutionary relationship (phylogeny) between different organisms.

• To enable us to separate living1

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Taxonomymajor taxonomic units (taxa).een majortaxonomic units (taxa).

The science of classification is called taxonomy. It has two branches, namely: nomenclature and
systematics.

• Nomenclature is the naming of organisms.

• Systematics is placing of organisms into groups which are referred to as taxa (plural) or taxon
(singular) on the basis of their similarities and differences.2

Taxonomy: is the study of grouping of organisms according to their relationship. There are seven major
taxonomic units (taxa). ie

• Kingdom

• Phylum (phyla) or Division in plants

• Class

• Order

• Family

• Genus

• Species

As you move from the kingdom to the species the differences decrease as the similarities increases.

Species is a group of organisms that can freely interbreed to give rise to viable/fertile offsprings.

Sometime members of different species may interbreed to give an offspring which is sterile. E.g. a
donkey and a horse can interbreed to give rise to a mule which is infertile.

Binomial system of nomenclature:

Binomial nomenclature is the system of giving a scientific name to an [Link] word binomial
comes from two words bi- meaning two and nomio meaning [Link] first accepted classification and
nomenclature was introduced by a Swedish scientist called Carl Linnaeus (1707 -1778).

The organism bears the generic name and specific name. For example, Zea mays is the scientific name
for maize, where Zea denotes the generic name and mays denotes the specific name2

Principles/ Rules of binomial nomenclatur:

• The first part of the scientific name is the generic name and it begins with a capital letter where as the
second part of the name is the specific name. The specific name is written in small letters.

• The generic name refers to the Genus while the specific name refers to the Species.

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• The scientific name should be printed in italics. For example, Pisum sativum for garden pea (English)
and when hand written or typed it should be underlined as separate words. For example, Pisum sativum.

• All the scientific names should be Latinised (written in Latin). For example, Aloe kilifiensis.

• The scientific name should bear the name of the first scientist who adequately described and named
the organism. For example, Balanus balanoides Linnaeus.3

The Five Kingdoms of Classification:

Carolus Linnaeus initially introduced the two kingdom system of classification. However many new life
forms have been discovered which are neither animals nor plants. This has led to a more accepted
classification system that adopts five kingdoms. These are;

• Monera

• Protoctista

• Fungi

• Plantae

• Animalia.

Kingdom Monera:

This kingdom consists mainly of the bacteria such as Azotobacter, cocci, vibro cholerae, Salmonella
typhi, Bacillus anthracis, Treponema, Nostoc, Cyanobacteria or blue green, among others. These are the
simplest forms of organisms. The study of bacteria is referred to as bacteriology which is a branch of
microbiology.

See and draw the generalized diagram a bacterium in student's book (fig 1.6)

General characteristics:

i.) They are unicellular and microscopic. Some are single cells while others are in colonies. They have
different body shapes.

ii.) Most are heterotrophic, feeding either saprophytically or parasitically. Some are autotrophic.

iii.) They are prokaryotic i.e. their nuclear material is not enclosed by a nuclear membrane.

iv.) They have few organelles which are not membrane bound. They don’t have mitochondria.

v.) They have a cell wall though not made of cellulose.

vi.) They reproduce asexually mainly through binary fission.

vii.) Most of them respire an-aerobically but some respire aerobically.

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viii.) Most of them move by use of flagella.

Kingdom Protoctista:

The members of Kingdom Protoctista are: amoeba, paramecium, euglena, Plasmodium,

See fig. 1.10: Examples of members of Kingdom Protoctista4in student's book

General characteristics

i.) They are eukaryotic whereby their nuclei is bound by a nuclear membrane.

ii.) Some are heterotrophic while others are autotrophic.

iii.) They have may organelles including mitochondria all of which are membrane bound.

iv.) They have different body forms; some are unicellular or colonial while others aremulticellular.

v.) Reproduction is mainly asexual by fission, fragmentation or sporulation. Some reproduce sexually by
conjugation.

vi.) They are mobile and move by means of cilia, flagella or pseudopodia.

vii.) Some may have specialised structures that perform specific functions such as contractile vacuole for
osmoregulation.

Kingdom Fungi

Examples

Saprophytic ones include mushrooms, toadstools, bread moulds, penicilia, yeast [Link] ones
cause plant diseases such as wheat rust, potato and tomato blight and animal diseases such as athlete’s
foot and ringworm.

General characteristics

i.) They are eukaryotic.

ii.) Most have cell walls made of chitin but a few have cellulose cell walls.

iii.) They store food particles in their cytoplasm in the form of glycogen or oil droplets but not starch.

iv.) The basic unit is the hyphae. Hyphae are thin filaments and many of them make up structures called
mycelium.

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v.) Fungi have neither the chloroplasts nor the chlorophyll. They feed on already manufactured food.
Hyphae act as the roots and are sent into the food material to obtain nutrients. In saprophytic fungi the
hyphae are referred to as rhizoids and in parasitic ones as haustoria.

vi.) They reproduce sexually (fusion of nuclei in hyphal branches) and asexually (spores and budding).

Exercise:

a) Outline five Health benefits of mushrooms.

b) Explain the history of antibiotics and members of the Kingdom Fungi.

c) Outline major fungal infections frequently diagnosed in hospitals.5 5

Kingdom Plantae

The Kingdom Plantae comprises of all green plants.

General characteristics of plants:

• Plants are eukaryotic and multicellular.

• Most of them are differentiated into stems, leaves and roots.

• They have cellulose cell wall.

• They have chlorophyll necessary for photosynthesis.

• Most have vascular bundles: they have phloem for translocation of manufactured food from the leaves
to other parts of the plant while xylem transports water and mineral salts to the leaves and other part of
the plant.

• They show alteration of generations.5

Exhibit both sexual and asexual reproduction.

• They have localised movement resulting from tropisms and taxes. 5

Main characteristics of major Divisions of Kingdom Plantae

Plants are grouped into three major Divisions. These are:

• Bryophyta

• Pteridophyta

• Spermatophyte

The criteria used to group the plants into three Divisions are based mainly on;

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• presence or absence of vascular bundles

• production of seeds or spores for reproduction.6

Division Bryophyta

Bryophytes include liverworts, hornworts and mosses.

See fig. 1.16: Moss growing on the bark of a tree and fig. 1.17: Liverwort growing in a swampy place
from the student's book.

General characteristics of bryophytes:

• These are the simplest forms of plants with no vascular transport system hence they rely on diffusion.

• They contain chlorophyll necessary for photosynthesis.

• They have developed rhizoids for anchorage and absorption of water and mineral salts.

• They are thalloid (undifferentiated vegetative body) like liverworts or differentiated into simple leaf-
like, stem-like and root-like structures. For example, moss.

• They lack support tissues hence they do not grow tall or large.

• They grow in shady, damp or wet areas.

• They show alteration of generation. The gamete producing gametophyte is dominant over the spore
producing sporophyte6

Division Pteridophyta:

This includes ferns and [Link] are more advanced compared to the bryophytes

General Characteristics:

i.) They have leaves, stems and roots but no flowers.

ii.) They are photosynthetic.

iii.) They have a clearly defined vascular system made of xylem and phloem.

iv.) They have compound leaves with leaflets called pinna.

v.) On the lower side of mature leaves are the spores bearing structures (sporangia) which occur in
groups called sori (sorus-singular). see diagram.

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vi.) They show alternation of generations where the sporophyte (fern plant) is the dominant one while
the gametophyte is a heart shaped structure called Prothallus. See diagram.

vii.) They have sexual reproduction which is dependent of water.

Division Spermatophyta:

The Spermatophyta comprises of well-developed plants which are adapted to a variety of habitats. The
habitats include terrestrial and aquatic. The seed are either contained inside the ovary wall or
[Link] comprises of all the seed bearing plants.

General Characteristics:

i.) They contain chloroplasts hence are photosynthetic.

ii.) The plant body is differentiated into roots, stems, leaves and seed bearing structures.

iii.) Vascular system is highly developed with xylem tissue consisting of both xylem vessels and tracheids.

iv.) Sexual reproduction is well defined.

v.) Seeds are produced after fertilisation.

vi.) They show alternation of generation.

The division Spermatophyta is made up of two main subdivisions i.e.

• Gymnospermaphyta

• Angiospermaphyta

Gymnospermaphyta ( cones bearing plants)

These are commonly found in high lands/ altitudes areas. They show xerophytic characteristics such as
sunken stomata, needle-like leaves, thick waxy cuticle to prevent or reduce rate of
[Link] include pines, cypress, cedar tree, cycads, etc.

Gymnosperms refers to plants whose seeds are not enclosed.

General Characteristics of Gymnospermaphyta:

•They bear male and female cones.

• After fertilisation seeds are borne on the female cones and they are naked i.e. they are not enclosed in
a fruit wall.

• They show xerophytic characteristics such as needle like leaves, rolled leaves, thick waxy cuticle and
sunken stomata.

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• Phloem doesn’t contain companion cells and xylem mainly consists of tracheids.

This subdivision has three main classes.

• Coniferales

• Cycadales

• Ginkgoales

i) Class Coniferales

• These include all the common gymnosperms.

• They are found in areas of little water.

• They have small needle-shaped leaves with waxy cuticle.

• They have cones and most of them are ever green.

• Male cones are in form of clusters at the base of the terminal bud.

• Female cones are on lateral buds of young shoots and they contain naked seeds.

ii) Class Cycadales

• They resemble the palm trees by appearance.

• They have long compound leaves which are clustered at the apex of a thick short un-branched stem.

• They bear cones at the apex of the trunk.

iii) Class Ginkgoales

• Members here are very rare.

• They include the Ginkgo biloba of China.

• They are deciduous with fan like leaves.

Angiospermaphyta:

General characteristics

• Are usually bisexual and flower bearing.

8Seeds are enclosed in an ovary which develops into a fruit.

• Xylem has tracheids and vessels while the phloem has companion cells.

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• They have double fertilisation.

This subdivision is divided into two classes.

• Monocotyledonae. –

• Dicotyledonae. –

Class Monocotyledonae Class Dicotyledonae.

1• They have seeds with one cotyledon. 1• Have two cotyledons.

2• They have narrow-long leaves with parallel venation. 2• Broad leaves with reticulate venation.

3• Most of their leaves have a modified petiole to form a 3• Leaves have distinct petioles.

leaf sheath.

4 • Their stems have scattered vascular bundle. 4• Vascular bundles are arranged

to form a concentric ring.

5• Pith is usually absent. 5• Pith is present.

6• Vascular cambium is usually absent hence no 6 • Vascular cambium is present hence there is
secondary growth.

secondary growth.

7• They have a fibrous root system 7 • They have a tap root system

8• Floral parts are in threes or in multiples of three. 8• Floral parts are in fours, fives or

their multiples.

9• In the root vascular bundles are arranged in. 9• In roots, the xylem is centrally placed

a ring with phloem and xylem alternating. and star shaped with the phloem

alternating with the arms of thexylem.

Kingdom Animalia:

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Animalia Kingdom is divided into nine phyla namely: Polifera, Coelenterata, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda,
Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda, Echinodermata and Chordata. 10

General characteristics

i.) Most show locomotion but a few are sessile

ii.) Most reproduce sexually and a few asexually

iii.) They are eukaryotic and multicellular

iv.) All are heterotrophic

v.) Their cells have no cell walls

Kingdom Animalia has nine phyla but only two will be discussed i.e.

Arthropoda and chordata.

Phylum Arthropoda:

General Characteristics

i.) They are segmented.

ii.) They are bilaterally symmetrical.

iii.) They have open circulatory system where blood flows in open cavities called haemocoel.

iv.) Head is well developed with eyes, sensory structures and a fairly developed brain.

v.) Gaseous exchange is through the tracheal system which opens through the spiracles to the outside.
Some aquatic ones use gills.

vi.) Reproduction is mostly sexual with internal fertilization. They have different sexes.

vii.) They have jointed appendages hence the name arthropoda.

viii.) They have a body covered with exoskeleton made of chitin. This provides a surface for muscle
attachment. It is shed periodically to allow growth through a process called moulting.

ix.) Most have their body divided into head, thorax and abdomen. In some, the head and the thorax are
fused to form Cephalothorax. The thorax and the abdomen are all segmented.

The phylum arthropoda is divided into five classes.

• Crustacea

• Chilopoda

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• Diplopoda

• Arachnida.

• Insecta.

Different members of the phylum are placed to their respective classes based on;

• Number of limbs

• Presence and number of antennae

• Number of body parts.

1. Class Crustacea

Examples. Daphnia, crayfish. Crab and prawn.

General Characteristics

i.) Head and thorax are fused to form cephalothorax.

ii.) They have two pairs of antennae.

iii.) They have between five and twenty pairs of limbs modified for different functions e.g. locomotion
defence and feeding.

iv.) They have a pair of compound eyes.

v.) Gaseous exchange is through the gills.

vi.) They have three pairs of mouth parts made of one pair of mandibles (lower) and two pairs of
maxillae (upper).

2. Class Chilopoda

These are the centipedes.

General Characteristics

i.) Body is divided into two parts, the head and the trunk.

ii.) The body is dorsa-ventrally flattened.

iii.) Body is made up of 15 or more segments.

iv.) Head has a pair of simple eyes.

v.) Each segment has a pair of walking legs.

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vi.) Head has a pair of antennae.

vii.) Have poison claws n the head and are therefore carnivorous.

viii.) Have a tracheal system for gaseous exchange.

ix.) Have separate sex

3. Class Diplopoda

These are the millipedes.

General Characteristics

i.) They have cylindrical body.

ii.) Have three body parts, head, and thorax and body trunk.

iii.) They have two clumps of many simple eyes.

iv.) They have no poison claws and are therefore herbivorous.

v.) Heads has a pair of short antennae and mandibles.

vi.) Each body segment has a pair of spiracles for breathing.

vii.) Body has between 9-100 segments.

viii.) Each segment has two pairs of walking legs except the first thoracic segment.

4. Class Arachnida

These include the scorpions, spiders, ticks and mites.

General Characteristics

i.) Body has two parts, cephalothorax and abdomen.

ii.) Cephalothorax has two chelicerae which produce poison to paralyse the prey.

iii.) Cephalothorax has four pairs of walking legs each having seven joints.

iv.) At the end of each leg are two toothed claws.

v.) Cephalothorax has eight simple eyes.

vi.) Most have lung books for gaseous exchange, some use gill books or tracheal system.

vii.) They have no antennae but have a pair of pedipalps which are sensitive to touch.

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5. Class Insecta:

They include grasshoppers, bees, houseflies, butterflies, termites, beetles etc.

Insects form half the population of animals on earth. They occupy all habitats i.e. air, water, and land.
Their food is varied such as plant tissues, animal fluids, dead animals and excretions of animals making
them to be found almost everywhere on earth.

General Characteristics

i.) Body is divided into three parts, head, thorax and abdomen.

ii.) Thorax is made up of three segments with three pairs of legs. Some have one or two pairs of wings
on the thorax.

iii.) Head has one pair of antennae.

iv.) They undergo complete or incomplete metamorphosis.

v.) Excretion is through the malpighian tubules which remove uric acid.

vi.) Gaseous exchange is through the tracheal system but they breathe through the spiracles.

vii.) The head a pair of compound eyes and several simple eyes.

viii.) Abdomen is made up of 11 or fewer segments. The terminal segments are modified for
reproduction.

ix.) Mouth parts consist of the mandibles, maxillae and labium. The mouth parts are modified according
to their feeding habits such as sucking, biting, chewing etc.

Phylum Chordata

Chordate, common name for animals of the phylum Chordata, which includes vertebrates as well as
some invertebrates that possess, at least for some time in their lives, a stiff rod called a notochord lying
above the gut. About 43,700 living species are known, making the chordates the third largest animal
[Link] animals such as the Amphioxus the notochord persists but in others it is replaced at later
stages of development by the vertebral [Link] in this phylum inhabit both aquatic (marine
and fresh water) and terrestrial (burrowers and arboreal) environments.

General Characteristics

i.) Members have a notochord at some stage of their development.

ii.) They are bilaterally symmetrical.

iii.) Heart is ventrally placed. Blood flows from the heart through the arteries and gets back to the heart
through the veins.

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iv.) They have a post anal tail although it is greatly reduced in some.

v.) They have an endoskeleton.

vi.) They have a closed circulatory system.

vii.) They have visceral clefts where in fish they become the gills in higher chordates they are only
present in the embryo.

viii.) They have a tubular dorsal nerve cord. It develops anteriorly into brain and posteriorly as the spinal
cord. Spinal cord is enclosed by the vertebral column.

ix.) They have segmented muscle blocks called myotomes on either side of the body.

The main classes of the phylum chordata are;

• Pisces

• Amphibia

• Reptilia.

• Aves.

• Mammalia

Class Pisces ( fishes)

These are the fishes. They include those with a skeleton made of cartilage e.g. shark and those with a
bony skeleton such as the tilapia, Nile perch, lung fish, dog fish, and cat fish etc.

General Characteristics

i.) The move by fins

ii.) Bodies are covered with scales

iii.) Have gills for gaseous exchange in water.

iv.) They don’t have a middle or inner ear.

v.) They have streamlined bodies.

vi.) They have a lateral line for sensitivity.

vii.) Their heart has two main chambers i.e. the auricle and the ventricle.

viii.) They are poikilothermic/ectothermic.

ix.) Eyes are covered by a nictating membrane.

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•Class Amphibia:

They include the toads, newts, salamanders and [Link] toad is the most advanced amphibian. Its skin
is less moist and therefore uses the lungs more for gaseous exchange. They

therefore stay mostly on land and only return to the ponds during reproduction.

See fig 1.24 for the examples of amphibians from the students book

General Characteristics:

i.) They have a double circulatory system.

ii.) They have a three chambered heart with two atria and one ventricle.

iii.) Fertilisation is external and they breed in water.

iv.) Gaseous exchange is through the skin, lungs and gills.

v.) They have two eyes and an eardrum behind the eyes.

vi.) They are ectothermic.

vii.) They have 4 well developed limbs. The hind limbs are more muscular than the forelimbs.

•Class Reptilia:

Examples include tortoise, turtles, snakes, crocodiles, lizards and chameleons.

See fig 1.25 for the examples of reptiles from students book

General Characteristics:

i.) They are ectothermic.

ii.) They have a well developed lung for gaseous exchange.

iii.) They have double circulatory system with the heart having three chambers i.e. two atria and a
partially divided ventricle. Crocodiles however have a four chambered heart.

iv.) The body is covered with a dry scaly skin reducing desiccation.

v.) Some have four limbs while others don’t have any limbs such as the snakes.

vi.) Fertilisation is internal. They lay eggs with a leathery shell to avoid desiccation. Some species of
chameleons give birth to young ones.

• Class Aves:

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Examples include doves, chicken, hawks, eagles and [Link] are terrestrial and arboreal while
some have been adapted for aquatic life.

See fig 1.26 for the examples of aves from students book

General Characteristics:

i.) Bodies are covered with feathers for in insulation.

ii.) They have beaks.

iii.) They internal auditory canal/ meatus

iv.) Fertilisation is internal and they lay hard calcareous eggs.

v.) They have lungs for gaseous exchange.

vi.) They have air sacs which store air in them reducing their body density for flight.

vii.) They are endothermic.

viii.) They have hollow bones.

ix.) They have scales on their hind limbs.

x.) They have double circulatory system with a four chambered heart.

xi.) The sternum is enlarged to form keel for attachment of flight muscles.

• Class Mammalia:

• Some are arboreal such as the tree squirrels, and some monkeys.

• Some are terrestrial either on the surface of the earth or in tunnels.

• Some are aquatic such as the dolphins and whales.

See fig 1.27 for the examples of mammals from students book

General Characteristics:

i.) They have double circulatory system

ii.) They have mammary glands hence the name Mammalia.

iii.) Their body is usually covered with fur or hair.

iv.) They have two eternal ears (pinna)

v.) They have sweat glands.

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vi.) They have lungs for gaseous exchange.

vii.) They have four limbs.

viii.) They have a diaphragm which separates the body cavity into thoracic and abdominal cavities..

ix.) The brain is highly developed.

x.) They have seven cervical vertebrae at their neck.

xi.) They are endothermic.

xii.) They have heterodont type of dentition where the teeth are differentiated into four types, incisors,
canines, pre-molars and molars. The number varies in relation to feeding habits.

Note; Although most mammals give birth to live young ones, some are egg laying such as the duck billed
platypus. After hatching, the young ones are fed on milk.

THE END7/13/2026

Prepared by teacher Karlo Mathew

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