VECTOR CONTROL.


COURSE OUTLINE
1. Introduction to Vector Control-History of Vector Control.
2. Classification of Insecticides and introduction.
3. Organochlorines and Parathyroids.
4. Organophosphates and Carbamates.
5. Growth Regulation Hormones
6. Formulation of Insecticides
7. Mechanisms of action of Insecticides.
8. Toxicity and Susceptibility of insecticides.
9. Application of Insecticides and equipments.
10. Resistance to Insecticides.
11. Vector control Tutorials.
Introduction to Vector Control-History of Vector Control
Insecticides are substances which are used to kill insects. The word
pesticide is a general term that includesfungicides, rodenticides, herbicides,
disinfectants, repellents and other chemicals used for the control of pests. T
he control of arthropodborne disease by insecticides is one of the greatest
th
triumphs of public health during the 20 century.
DDT (Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane) was first synthesized in 1874 by
German chemist Ziedler. It was in 1939 its insecticidal properties were
discovered by the Swiss scientist, Paul Muller. DDT is a white amorphous
powder with mild but not pleasant smell. It is insoluble in water but dissolve
in most organic solvents. The technical DDT contains 70-80 per cent of the
para-para isomer, which is the most active fraction of DDT.
Insecticides have not only controlled malaria,plague,typhus and other
diseases transmitted by insects,but also brought vast economic and social
benefits through better Health and increased food production.

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Chlorpyrifos C9H11Cl3NO3PS (OP GROUP).

26
C10H19O6PS2 Malathion (OP GROUP).

Propoxur R 2NC(O)OR (Carbamate group).

26
Classification of Insecticides and introduction
Insecticides are divided into three groups: Contact Poisons, Stomach
Poisons, and fumigants.
Contact Poisons are those which kills insects primarily by contact e.g.
pyrethrium, DDT,HCH, Dieldrin etc. contact poisons divided into two :
Natural and synthetic, stomach Poisons are those which ingested cause
the death of the insect. E.g. Paris green, Sodium fluoride. Fumigants are
those which give off vapours which have lethal effect on the insect, e.g.
Sulphur Dioxide, methyl bromide, hydrogen cyanide, carbon disulphate this
classification is by no means a rigid one, because contact poisons can also
be stomach poison.
Most of the present-day insecticides available for vector control excluding
inorganic chemicals and larvacidal oils may be classified into three groups:

Organochlorine compounds Organophosphorus Carbomates

compounds

DDT malathion Propoxur

HCH, Fenthion Carbaryl

dieldrin chlorpyrifos Dimetilan

Methoxychlor Abate pyrolan

Chlordane Diazinon

Heptachlor Demethoate

Aldrin Methyl parathion

Toxaphane Parathion

Kepone Ronnel

Mirex Trichlorfon

Dichlorvos

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 REPELLLANTS Naled Synthetic pyrethroids

Meta-diethyltoluamide. Gardona Resmethrin

Benzyl benzoate Fenitrothion Bioresmethrin

Indalone Dicapthion Pothrin.

Dimethl phthalate

Ethyl hezanediol

Growth Regulation Hormones.

These are synthetic compounds that interfere with the larval growth, and
moulting of insects. These chemicals mimic the natural juvenile hormone
and prevent the formation of chitins during the pre-pupal stage. An
isoprene compound (methoprene) are chitin inhibiting substitute urea
(diflubenzuron) are now available, the former as slow –release briquettes
and the later as a 25% wettable powder or as 0.5 % granules. However,
their use is limited by high cost and restricted available. They fairly rapidly
decomposed in water, but as granules or microcapsules they may last
several weeks or even several months.

Formulation of Insecticides.
Formulation of insecticides is numerous, ranging from fogs to fluid oils to
solid and floating briquettes.
Solutions.
Solution are either oil or kerosene, solvent naphtha or white spirit, with
concentration of 10-15 % Aromatic hydrocarbons such as benzene and

26
cyclohexane permit high concentrations,up to 25-.40 , which can be diluted
to the required spray concentration.
Insecticide solutions can be used either for Larvciding or as imagicides for
the control of the adult mosquitoes by space spraying and residual
spraying. The later method has been used when spraying some types of
houses in which the staining of walls by unsightly deposits of water
dispersible powder had to be avoided, for this reason, the introduction of
water emulsion.
Emulsions.
Emulsions are made up from two immiscible liquids one which is broken up
into globules and scattered into the other liquid. To prevent the separation
of the two, various emulsifying agents are [Link] are prepared
from various concentrations containing 10- 35 % of chemical compound by
dilution with water, pastes are special types of emulsion concentrates.

Water Dispersible Powder.

Water dispersible powder or wettable powder are composed of an active
insecticide diluted with an inert carrier, to which various wetting ,
suspending, and anti-caking agents are added .
The WHO specifications that at least 50-70 % of the insecticide content
should have a particle size of less than 10-20 %µm .solutions and
emulsions are readily absorbed by porous surface of very rough in rural
dwellings in the tropics; as a result, the toxic effect on mosquitoes may be
decreased. But HCH, Propoxur fenitrothion still exert their action especially
at higher doses.
Solid Formulations.
Solid formulation of insecticidesare powders, microcapsules, pellets, or
briquelles. All these preparations used as larvicides are designed to
disintegrate slowly in water while releasing toxic agent.
These are placed in small bodies of water ( temp0rary or permanent
breeding sites), and remain there even when the water dries out. They then

26
float to the surface and release insecticide whenthe site fill up with water
again after rain.

Mechanisms of action of Insecticides.

Insecticides can be categorized as either those that target the insect
nervous system or those that do not.
Insecticides have chemical structures that allow them to be classified
based on the commonality of the active ingredient's chemistry. Thus, all
members of an insecticide class have similar characteristics. The chemical
structure of an insecticide generally defines its target site and its mode of
action at that target site. Target site is defined as the physical location
within an organism where the insecticide acts. Mode of action,
alternatively, is defined as the action of an insecticide at its target site. In
other words, the mode of action of an insecticide is the way in which it
causes physiological disruption at its target site. Therefore, insecticide
class, target site and mode of action are highly inter-connected concepts.

Most of the insecticides commonly used technically are classified as

neurotoxins - i.e., their target site within the target organism is some aspect
of the nervous system. Only a few of the commonly used insecticides, such
as insect growth regulators (juvenile hormone analogs and chitin synthesis
inhibitors) and a few miscellaneous active ingredients (borates, energy
inhibitors and dehydrating dusts), do not target the nervous system.
To understand the mode of action of insecticides that target the insect
nervous system, it is important to have a basic understanding of how the
nervous system operates. In insects, the nervous system is composed of a
series of highly specialized, interconnected cells, along which travel
electrical charges called impulses. Impulses are driven by the movement of
electrically charged sodium, potassium and chloride ions into and out of
nerve cells. The uninterrupted transmission of impulses along this series of
cells is required for a nervous system to function properly. In insects,
prolonged or irreversible disruption of a normal-functioning nervous system
will result in death.
The area, or gap, between the end of one nerve cell and the beginning of
the next nerve cell is referred to as the synapse. When a nerve impulse
terminates at the end of its nerve cell (the pre-synapse region), it must be
transmitted across the synapse to the beginning of the next nerve cell (the

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post-synapse region). The transmission of impulses across the synapse is
achieved by any one of a number of specific chemical messengers called
neurotransmitters — "neuro" meaning nerve, and "transmitter" meaning to
transmit, or carry. Important neurotransmitters discussed later include
acetylcholine (Ach), gamma amino butyric acid (GABA) and glutamate.
Neurotransmitters are released from the pre-synapse region, migrate
across the synapse and are received by the post-synapse region at
neurotransmitter-specific sites called receptor sites. When the
neurotransmitter successfully binds to its receptor site at the post-synapse
region, this triggers an impulse in the next nerve cell. In order to achieve the
uninterrupted movement of impulses through the entire nervous system,
this alternating system of electrical impulse to chemical transmitter and
back to electrical impulse must function perfectly.

Insecticides that target the insect nervous system can be subdivided based
on their specific target site within the nervous system. Specific neurological
target sites include sodium and chloride channels and various components
of the acetylcholine system. Insecticides that do not target the nervous
system also can be subdivided by target site
and mode of action, and include muscular calcium channel disruptors,
insect growth regulators, inhibitors of energy production and non-specific
cellular disruptors, as well as insecticides that act via desiccation
(exoskeleton). Based on these subdivisions, in the following sections we

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present the mode of action of important insecticides used in urban and
structural pest management
Neurological Target Site: Sodium Channels.
Chemical Class: Pyrethrins and Pyrethroids.
The insecticidal activity of pyrethrins can be enhanced by applying them in
the presence of an otherwise non-toxic chemical called a synergist. Within
the insect body, pyrethrin molecules are inactivated by several types of
enzymes, thus reducing the quantity of pyrethrin molecules available to
affect nerve cells. This phenomenon, called detoxification, reduces the
insecticide's effectiveness at the target site because less is available. To
alleviate this problem, and allow more of the pyrethrin molecules to act
against insect nerve cells, they are often applied along with a synergist.
Synergists block the pyrethrin-inactivating enzymes, allowing more of the
insecticide to reach its target site. Synergists, such as piperonylbutoxide
(PBO), are often formulated with pyrethrin-based products.
Both pyrethrins and pyrethroids disrupt normal nerve function in a region of
the nerve cell known as the axon (i.e., the target site). Their mode of action
is to inhibit the on/off switch of nerve cells, called sodium channels, by
delaying the rate at which they close, or turn off (see Figures 2A and B
above). This mode of action results in uncontrolled, uninterrupted nerve
firing seen as a convulsing insect (tremors and shaking) that quickly dies.
Neurological Target Site: Acetylcholine System.
Organophosphates (OPs) and Carbamates.
OPs and carbamates act by inhibiting the acetylcholinesterase (AchE)
enzyme in the nervous system (see Figures 2A and B above). AchE
performs a critical job in the nervous system by removing the
neurotransmitter acetylcholine (Ach) from its receptor on the post-synapse
nerve. Under natural conditions, AchE prevents overstimulation of the
nervous system because it removes Ach. Without AchE, a stimulated nerve
cannot return to its resting state. OPs and carbamates tie-up (inhibit) AchE,
preventing it from removing Ach from its receptor site. The result is
overstimulation of the nerve cell, and death of the insect. Because the AchE
enzyme is very similar between insects and mammals, the OPs and
carbamates are not very selective.
Organochlorines and Parathyroids.
DDT and its chemical relations are all nerve poisons. They increase the
nerve excitability, and cause tremors and convulsions. Of the three

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commonly used compounds namely DDT, HCH, and dieldrin, DDT is the
least toxic. The lethal dose for the human is about 250 mg per kg. of body
[Link]-HCH is about twice as toxic as DDT. And dieldrin is about 5
to 8 times as toxic as [Link] poisoning is met with more frequently
than DDT, and HCH poisoning: the reason is, dieldrin is absorbed through
skin in the solid state.
TREATMENT .
Poisoning with chlorinated hydrocarbonsis treated with barbiturates,
specially phenobarbitone.
Stomach washouts are generally necessary, purgative may be useful but
no oils fats should be given.

\Toxicity and Susceptibility of insecticides

Organophosphates and Carbamates.

These insecticides interfere with the mechanism of transmission of nerve
impulses. They act by inhibiting cholinesterase, the enzyme which catalysis
the degradation of Acetyl choline in the synaspse of striated
[Link] there is accumulation of Actyl [Link] effect of
poisoning is headache,giddiness apprehension, restlessness, cold
sweating, salivation, uncontrolled urination, and defecation, in extreme
cases ataxia, and paralysis of respiratory Centre.

Treatment.
Atropine is the specific antidote for poisoning by organophosphorus
insecticides. It should be inject 1 to 2 mg intramuscularly, and repeated if
necessary at 30 minutes interval.

HCH (BHC).
Benzene hexachloride or hexachlorocyclohexane or gammexane or hexidol
was synthesized earlier that DDT by Michael Faraday in 1825, even its
insecticidal activity was discovered before that of DDT- in USA in 1933.
Properties HCH is white or chocolate coloured powder with musty smell, it
is irritating to eyes, nose, and skin. In crude form, it is composed of number
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of isomer of which gamma isomer is the most active ingredient.
ACTION.
HCH kills insect by direct contact, but its residual action is of shorter
duration, up to3 months.
HCH IS Applied 25-30 mg per sq. foot, it is recommended for residual
treatment.

MALATHION.
Malathion is the least toxicity of all Organophosphorus compounds. The
technical compound is yellow or clear brown liquid with unpleasant smell.
Commercially, water dispersible powder are available .malathion is used in
dose of 100-200 mg per sq foot, every three months because of its low
toxicity.

ABATE
Abate (Temephos) is Organophosphorus compound; it is a brown viscous
liquid, soluble in petroleum solvent. Because of its low toxicity, it is the
control of domestic water containers and Larvciding of water collecting
points.
DIAZINON.
Diazinon isliquid product, being volatile, it kills insect not only by direct
contact. But also by fumigant action, it has proved effective in the control of
DDT resistance insects. At a dosage of 60 to 100 mg per sq. foot, it has
given satisfactory control of flies and mosquitoes.
Diazinon is more toxic to man than Malathion, and fenthion.

FENTHION.
Fenthion or baytex is brown liquid smelling slightly of [Link] is practically
insoluble in water. Water dispersible powder is available containing 20 to 40
per cent [Link] is found to be as effective as DDT. The usual
dosage for residual sprays is 100 mg/sq. foot. As Larvciding, fenthion is
reported to be very powerful. Granules containing 2 per cent fenthion have

26
been used in antilarval work.
DICHLOROVOS.
Dichlorovos is volatile liquid insecticide, which kills insect by fumigants
action. It has been successfully used for disinfecting aircraft. A special
advantage of Dichlorovos is that it can be combined with solid substances
such as wax, which can be fashioned into tablets or bricks from which it
slowly evaporates.
PROPOXUR.
The new carbamates insecticide, propoxur has been recommended as a
substitute for DDT in areas where the anopheles has developed resistance
to DDT, and Dieldrin.
PYRETHRUM.
Pyrethrum is insecticide of vegetable origin. It is extracted from the flowers
of chrysanthemum cinerariafolium. A plant which is cultivated in Kashmir,
Shimla and Nilgiris in India. The flower contains four active principles:
pyrethrins I and II, cenirins I and II – all are nerve poisons. Pyrethrum
extracted is prepared by soaking 1/2 to 1 lb. of dried, powdered flower in
one gallon of kerosene oil for 72 hours, when the active principle is
extracted. The ready- to- spray solution contains up to 0.1 per cent of
pyrethrins. Pyrethrum extract is an excellent space spray. It has been used
extensively in the past for killing adult mosquitoes, and other insects. It kills
instantly on mere contact. It is sprayed at the rate of 1/21 oz. of the spray
solution per 1,000 cu. Feet of space. As a space spray, fine atomization of
the spray solution is necessary and the doors and windows should be kept
closed for ½ hour after spraying. Pyrethrum suffers from the disadvantage
that it does not possess the residual action of DDT and other synthetic
insecticides.

PYRETHRUM AND DDT.

Most space spray contains pyrethrum and DDT or other synthetic
insecticides, which are added for [Link] standard reference
aerosol recommended by the WHO consist of (a) pyrethrum extracted ( 25%
pyrethrins)- 1.6 per cent and ( b) DDT technical- 3 per cent to be dispersed
at the rate of 10 g. per 1,000 [Link] of space in the treatment of aircraft.
About one third of this dosage, 3.3 g. per 1,000 cu ft. may be used for
routine treatment of dwellings.

SYNTHETIC PYRETHROIDS.
Synthetic pyrethroids are now being developed to replace natural pyrethrins
Some of the newly developed synthetic pyrethroids have been found to be
as much as 10 times as effective as naturally occurring pyrethrins. Among
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the synthetic pyrethroids developed so far, tetramethrin, resethrin, prothrin
and propathrin seem to be the most promising ones.

ROTENONE.
Rotenone is obtained from the roots of a plant, derris elliptica. The roots are
dried and powdered and then blended to give a rotenone content between
4 to 5 % and used as insecticidal dust. An extract of rotenone may be made
in organic solvents such as chloroform. Rotenone was once widely used in
the control of lice, fleas, mites, and ticks.

MINERAL OILS.
Oils such as kerosene, crude oil, malario have been extensively used to kill
mosquito larvae and pupae. Oil suffocate and poison the aquatic stages of
the mosquito. The killing power of oil increased greatly by the addition of
DDT, HCH and other chemicals. Oils are injurious to vegetation and fish
when improperly used.

PARIS GREEN.
Paris green or aceto-arsenite is an emerald green microcrystalline powder,
practically insoluble in water but soluble in ammonia and concentrated
acids. A good sample of Paris green contains over 50 % arsenious
oxide;Paris green is a stomach poison. Till the advent of DDT, Paris green
was extensively used in the control of anopheline larvae, by spraying as a 2
% dust over breeding places once a week. The use of Paris green was
largely responsible for the eradication of A. gambiae from Brazil in 1940,
and the near –eradication of the same species in Egypt in 1944.

Application of Insecticides and equipments.

Evaluation according to standard specifications is necessary for
appropriate selection and purchase of insecticide application equipment for
use in the programme for control of disease vectors, disease reservoirs and
pests. Evaluation is also needed to ensure that equipment is suitable for
specific application, and that it is durable, reliable and easily maintained. To
achieve this, the WHO established the WHO insecticide application
equipment Evaluation Scheme (WHO, 1977).
Most vector control programmes continue to give preference to properly
designed hand-operated equipment, with the compression sprayer being
the most commonly used for various control operations such as residual

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treatment and application of larvicides and insect pathogens. The
operation and maintaince of motorized equipment need additional skills,
problems will occur unless specially trained personnel are placed in charge.
Aerosols are used to apply insecticides for the temporary control of adult
mosquitoes and other flying insects, especially during epidemics of
mosquito-borne diseases such as malaria, yellow fever, dengue fever or
dengue hemorrhagic fever.
Hand Compression Sprayer.
The hand compression sprayer is universally regarded as standard
equipment for residual insecticide spraying. This type of sprayer e.g.
Hudson expert consists of cylindrical tank made of stainless steel and of
about 13 L (2-3gallons) capacity, in which the liquid insecticide formulation
usually suspension of water dispersible powder is contained. The internal
pressure in the tank is raised by hand-operated pump incorporated in the
sprayer; the cover is of the inner seal type, which tightens when the
pressure is high. It is fitted with a hose, a cu-off valve, a lance and nozzle.
The ideal nozzle to ensure uniformity of application is the tee-jet nozzle
8002, delivering a fan-type spray, with spray angle of 80º, and an outputof
0.76 L (0.18 gallons) per minute at the standard pressure. Held at distance
of 45 cm (18 inches) from the surface to be sprayed, such nozzle will
deposit a swath of spray 75 cm ( 30 inches) wide, of which the middle half
is effective.
Hand Compression Sprayer.

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Motorized Knapsack Mist blowers.
Motorized Knapsack Mist blowers, powered by a small two stroke (two-
3
cycle) internal combustion engine, produce a high velocity airstream (0.5 m
air/minute) to a hand- directed, vertical nozzle. Airflow sucks to spray from
a 1 L plastic container to the nozzle via a metering restrictor. The volume of
liquid insecticide applied can be up to 350 ml/ minute. These mist blowers
are widely used in mosquito and tse tse fly control as they are the only type
of portable equipment that can project spray into the eaves of houses or
thickets around villages where exophilic vectors can occur. They are useful
for areas that are difficult to access by road.

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Thermal foggers.
These machines are preferred in many vector control programmes, despite
the extra cost, because the highly visible fog I psychologically more
acceptable to the user and to those who wish it to see the control
operations are being carried out. Where thermal fogs are used,
considerations should be given to increasing the concentration of
insecticide and decreasingproportionally the flow rate, in order to reduce
formulation costs. A reduction in flow rate will decrease fuel consumption
in the combustion chamber as less heat is required to atomize the lower
volume.
There is potential fire hazard when thermal foggers are used, especially
when the pulse-jet-type foggers are carried indoors. It is important that
they are operated only by well-trained personnel using appropriate
insecticide formulations and with access to fire extinguisher.

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Aerosol generators.
Aerosol generators used to disperse insecticides are designed for the
control of flying insect pest and vectors with ULV [Link] type
uses a high volume of air at lower pressure in a vortex nozzle to atomize
concentrated or technical formulation of insecticide; other aerosol
generators use high-pressure, low- volume airflow to atomize the
insecticide. Most organophosphorus insecticides can be applied as
technical formulations, but other insecticides, such as carbamates and
pyrethroids, must be formulated with compatible solvents for ULV application.

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Equipments for biological control.
The biological control over the years for Larval control are:-
● Fish, e.g. gambusiaaffinis, poeciliareticuulata, and tilapia spp.
● Bacteria e.g. Bacillus thuringiensis serotype H-14 (B.t.H-14), B.
sphaericus.

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● Nematodes e.g. Romanomermisculicivorax, R. jiingdeensis, R.
iyengari, Octomyomermismushpratti.
Technique of Residual Spraying.
In view of the importance of correct technique for the application of
residual insecticides, some details of the relevant practice may be of
value. Knowledge of the number, location and accessibility of the
houses, and field shelters is of great importance and this is the real aim
of geographical reconnaissance or, more currently, geographic
information system (GIS), which should be carried out during the
preparatory phase of the programme and kept up to date as much as
possible.
The main data to be provided by geographical reconnaissance or GIS are
as:-
● The extent of the area must be clearly known; map showing the
location of the villages, roads, and other features must be
available; if not, they must be prepared by a properly trained team.
● The number, type, size of dwellings and other sprayable
structures must be identified and recorded.
● The mean sprayable surface per dwelling must be calculated, in
order to knowthe amount of insecticide needed one spray round.
This is done by measuring the walls and ceilings of a sample of
dwelling.
● The maps are useful for plotting the location of the villages,
houses, and roads for the squad leaders to follow. Each dwelling
should receive a reference number, painted on the well or on the
door, to enable the spraying squad leader to check the work done.
● Information on population in each area is important, for
epidemiological evaluation of disease and any subsequent changes.
● The timing of spraying operation is important; in areas with short
transmission period, the spraying should be planned so that it is
completed before the onset of the high activity of the vector.
Certain customs must be taken into consideration.

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 ● Population movement related to the seasonal migration,
planting, harvesting, cattle grazing may result in lock houses.

Insecticide Used Dosage.

Spraying operation is directed to Adult and
Larvae.
Adult control:
Insecticide used:
a/ Organochlorine DDT 75 %
2.
Lethal Dose 2.g.A.I./ M
b/ Organophosphorus: - Malathion 50 %
2
Lethal Dose 2.g.A.I./M
- Fentrothion 40%
2
Lethal Dose 1.g.A.I. /M
C/ Pyrethroids: - K- Othrine 2.5%
2
Lethal Dose 25mg.A.I./M
Spraying Equipment.
Types: -Hudson X-pert
-Gloria
- Simco.
Capacity:-10 or 8 Litres.

Facts Concerning Spraying Techniques.

Nozzle: 8002 Hss.

Pressure: 25-55 p./ inch Average 40.
2
Solution needed for m . 40 cc.
Distance of Nozzle tip from wall 45 cm.
Width of swath 75 cm.
Conclusions:

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 1. Nozzle tip 8002 means
a/ 80 Fan.
b/ 0.02 Discharge rate/ minute from American gallon.
= 0.02x3.75 Litres.
=757 cc/ minute.
2. Pump charge 10 litres is enough to cover
2 = 2
10000 cc solution enough for 1m 250 m
40 cc
3. To empty pump 10000 = 13 minutes
757
4. Coverage / minute =757 cc/ minute =19 meters/ minute =
18.92
2
= 40 cc/ enough/m
Insecticide needed for pump charge.
● 2
10 litres capacity. DDT 75 % - 2 g.A.I. /m
2
Pump charge can cover 250 m
2
So 250m x 2g. A.I.X
75 I.C =666 GM DDT 75 %
2
Malathion 50 % -2g. A. I./ m
2
Pump charge can cover 250 m
2
So 250 m 2g. A.I. X100 I.C =1000 Malathion
50
● 2
Fenitrothion = 40 % - 1 g. A. I. / m
2
Pump charge can cover 250 m
So 250 %x 1g. A.I X 100 I.C =625.g Fenitrothion 40 %
40
● 2
K- Othrine 2.5 % -25 mg A.I. /m
2
Pump charge can cover 250 m
So 250 x 25 x 100 = 250 gK. Othrine 2.5%
1000 2.5
Examples.
2
1.1How much DDT 75 % is needed to cover 1200 m
Insecticide needed = area x active ingredient x insecticide
Conc.

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 I = a x ai / conc.
2
=1200 m x 2g A.I x 100 = 3.2 Kg DDT 75%
75
1. 2
How much pump is needed to cover 1200 m
P =area
Pump charge 10 litres
2
P =1200 m =4.8 =5 pumps
250
2. 2
How much time needed to cover 1200 m
T = 1200 x 13 minutes 62.4 minutes
250
2. How many square meters can be covered by 50 Kg of
malathion 50 % ?
2
A = 50 x 1000 x 50 = 12500 m
2 100
How many pump charges needed ?
P= 50 x 1000 x 50
2 x 100= 50 pumps.
2

Resistance to Insecticides.
The widespread use of synthetic insecticides has given rise to the serious
problem of insecticide resistance practically all over the world. The
magnitude of the problem can be appreciated from the fact that whereas in
1946 resistance to insecticide was reported only two species of insects of
public health importance, in 1962, the number raised to 81 species and in
1980 to 134 species. Evidence has accumulated to show that resistance in
many vectors has been caused as a side effect of agricultural pesticide
usage.
Resistance has been defined by WHO (1957) as the development of
an ability in strain of insect to tolerate doses of toxicants which would

26
 prove lethal to the majority of individual in normal population of the
same species. Resistance is due to biochemical and genetic factors:
in the former, the toxicants is converted into non-toxicants form in the
body of insect by various enzymes; in the later resistance is
transmitted through genes, single or multiple.
Susceptibility and bioassay tests
Learning objectives
By the end of this Unit you should be able to:
measure the level of insecticide resistance in a vector population
determine the residual efficacy of an insecticide deposit on a sprayed
surface or material at a specified time after the spraying One of the
most important reasons to sample vector populations is to determine
their susceptibility to insecticides. When insecticides are used in
malaria control, it is important that you monitor changes in the
susceptibility level of the target vectors from time to time. The residual
efficacy of the insecticide used should also be determined at intervals
after its application or use. In this Unit, you will learn the skills required
to carry out these activities.
4.1 Susceptibility tests
Physiological resistance to insecticides

Susceptibility tests are carried out to determine the proportion of the vector
population that is physiologically resistant to a particular insecticide.

Physiological resistance to insecticides has been defined as the ‘ability of a
population of insects to tolerate doses of an insecticide which would prove
lethal to the majority of individuals in a normal population of the same
species.
The efficacy of indoor residual spraying (IRS) and insecticide impregnated
nets (ITNs) depends, among other things, on the proportion of vectors
resting on the sprayed surface and on the susceptibility of the vectors to
the insecticide used. It is therefore important to monitor the development
and extent of insecticide resistance in a given vector population.

Equipment
Susceptibility test kit (including exposure/holding tubes, copper and silver
rings, insecticide-impregnated filter papers, oil-impregnated control papers,
sucking tubes), thermometer, wooden box with large holes, towels, cotton
wool, paper cups with cover nets, rubber bands, markers or wax pencils,
mosquito cage.

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Method of determining the susceptibility of adult mosquitoes
The standardized WHO method involves checking the mortality of several
female Anopheles of a known species exposed in special tubes to filter
papers impregnated with a lethal concentration (known as discriminating
dose) of a given insecticide dissolved in mineral oil.

If control mortality is greater than or equal to 5% and less than or equal to

20%, the value for exposure mortality E should be corrected by using the
following formula (Abbott’s formula):

Where, E is the (uncorrected) exposure mortality expressed in % and C is
the control mortality expressed in %.

For instance, if control mortality C is 10% and crude exposure mortality E
is 40%, the corrected exposure mortality is [(40 – 10)/100 – 10)] * 100 =
33% .If control mortality is greater than 20%, the experiment should be
discarded.

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Calculation of mortality,

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Total number of dead mosquitoes X100
Observed mortality = Total sample size

A similar calculation should be made in order to obtain a value for the

control mortality. If the control mortality is above 20%, the tests must be
discarded. When control mortality is greater than 5% but less than 20%,
then the observed mortality has to be corrected using Abbots formula, as
follows:

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(% observed mortality – % control mortality) x100
(100 – % control mortality)

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When reporting mortality counts, the sample size should always be given


vector-borne disease control Tutorial:

As applied to vector-borne disease control, the term community participation has been broadly
interpreted. Community-based vector control projects have been described as having both active and
passive components. community participation in organized efforts are to control several disease and
has become more dynamic, with increasingly active involvement by local community members. Some
diseases are particularly significant vector-borne disease problem in the in some countries, and
health officials should begin to emphasize horizontal or decentralized approaches to control of the
vectors. the suggests that vector control programs using community participation will have
significant and sustainable impact on vector density, appear to be more cost-effective than purely
vertically structured programs, are readily integrated with other health or development programs,
promote an enduring sense of pride in home and community, and are politically viable vector control
strategies. Community participation has inherent value because of its positive effect on social
relationships and community solidarity. Moreover, it is a dynamic process that results in accrued
benefits for public health that exceed most vector control program goals and persist well beyond
program termination.


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Faculty of Public and Environmental Health

Course Vector Control

Prepared by Ismail Abdu Nimaya

2023-2024

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