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CHAPTER #
SCALARS AND
VECTORS

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Scalars
“Physical quantities that are completely specified by their magnitude (a number
with suitable unit) are called scalars.”

Properties of Scalars
 Ordinary letters denotes the scalars.
 The scalars can be added, subtracted multiplied and divided by using the rules of
elementary algebra.
 The number representing any scalar is called its magnitude.
 Two or more scalars are equal if they have the same magnitude and sign.

Examples
Some of the physical quantities that are scalars are:
1. Length 2. Distance 3. Time 4. Speed 5. Volume
6. Density 7. Work 8. Mass 9. Frequency 10. Energy
11. Temperature 12. Wavelength 13. Current 14. Entropy 15. Specific Heat

Vectors
“Physical quantities that have both magnitude and direction and that follow the
laws vector addition are called vectors.”

Examples
Some physical quantities that are vectors are:
1. Displacement 2. Velocity 3. Acceleration 4. Momentum
5. Force 6. Angular Velocity 7. Weight 8. Torque
9. Electric Field 10. Magnetic Field 11. Tension

Representation of Vectors
In printing
A vector is usually represented by a bold faced symbol such as A, B and C and their
magnitude are denoted by light italic A, B, C or by its modulus, also called its absolute value
│A│, │B│, │C│.

In Handwriting
Capital letters are used with an arrow above the symbol to donate a vector such as
𝐴 ,𝐵 ,𝐶 .

Graphically
To represent a vector on a diagram an arrow headline segment is drawn to certain
scale. The length of segment represents the magnitude and arrow indicates the direction.

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Addition of Vectors
Following are the methods of vector addition graphically.
1. Parallelogram law
2. Triangle law or head to tail rule.

Parallelogram Law
According to this law
“The resultant of two vectors forming two adjacent sides of a parallelogram is given
by a diagonal of the parallelogram passing through the common point of the vectors.”

Explanation
Consider two vectors 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 starting at common point O. Let these two vectors be
the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram.
Complete the parallelogram OBCA and draw the diagonal OC. According to parallelogram
law, diagonal OC represents the resultant 𝑅 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 .

Head To Tail Rules OR Triangle Law

To add vectors by this method we draw their representative lines such that the head of
one vector coincides with the tail of the other vector. Now join the tail of first vector with the
head of last vector. This represents the resultant vector 𝑅 .

Explanation
Consider two vectors 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 starting at common
point „O‟ as shown. Draw vector 𝐵 parallel to its line on
the head of 𝐴. Now an arrow from tail of 𝐴 (point O) to

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take head of 𝐵 (point C) represents the resultant 𝑅.

Law Of Cosine
If two vector 𝑃 and 𝑄 act such that their tails coincide, then magnitude is given by the
“Law Of Cosine”.
R2 = P2 + Q2 – 2PQ COS (180 – θ)
Magnitude of 𝑅
R2 = P 2 + Q2 + 2PQ COSθ [COS (180 – θ) = - COS θ]

Multiplication Of A Vector By A Number

Let a vector 𝐴 be multiplied by a pure number m (m # 0). The products generates a
new vector, says 𝐵, whose magnitude is m times the magnitude of vector 𝐴 .

Orientation of Vector 𝐵
1. The new vector 𝐵 has the same direction as 𝐴 if m is positive.
2. The direction of new vector 𝐵 is opposite to that of 𝐴 if m is negative.

Rules
The multiplication of a vector by a scalar obey following rules.
1. m 𝐴 = 𝐴m : commutative law
2. m(n 𝐴) = mn 𝐴 : associative law
3. (m + n) 𝐴 = m𝐴 + n 𝐴 : distributive law
4. m(𝐴 + 𝐵) = m𝐴+m𝐵 : distributive law

Division Of A Vector By A Number: (n ≠ 0)

When a vector 𝐴 is divided by a pure number
n (non-zero), this operation is equivalent to the
multiplication of vector 𝐴 by the reciprocal of scalar
number (1/n).
𝐴 1
∴ = 𝑛 (𝐴)
𝑛

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Properties Of Vector Addition

Commutative Law
“In addition of two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 the resultant is independent of the order of
addition.”
𝐴+𝐵=𝐵+𝐴
i.e.
Proof:
Consider two vector forming two adjacent sides of parallelogram as shown.
From figure. Using head to tail rule we
have.
𝑂 𝑆 + 𝑆𝑄 = 𝑂 𝑆
Or 𝐴+𝐵 =𝑅 --------(1)
Again in the same figure.
𝑂𝑃 + 𝑃 𝑄 = 𝑂𝑄
Or 𝐵+𝐴=𝑅 --------(2)
Comparing equations (1) & (2)
𝐴+𝐵 =𝐵+𝐴

Associative Law
The resultant of time vectors 𝑨, 𝑩 & 𝑪 remains same irrespective of any order or
grouping of vectors.
i.e. 𝐴+ 𝐵+𝐶 = 𝐴+𝐵 +𝐶

Proof:
Consider these vectors 𝑨, 𝑩 & 𝑪 as shown
in figure. Using head to tail rule we can write.
𝑂𝑃 + 𝑃𝑄 = 𝑂𝑄
Or 𝐴+𝐵 = 𝑂𝑄
Again using head to tail rule.
𝑃𝑄 + 𝑄𝑆 = 𝑃𝑆
𝐵+𝐶 = 𝑃𝑆
Now,
𝑂𝑃 + 𝑃𝑆 = 𝑂𝑆
𝐴+ 𝐵+𝐶 =𝑅 ----(1)
Similarly,
𝑂𝑄 + 𝑄𝑆 = 𝑂𝑆
𝐴+𝐵 +𝐶 =𝑅 ----(2)
Comparing equations (1) & (2)
𝐴+ 𝐵+𝐶 = 𝐴+𝐵 +𝐶

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Resolution Of A Vector
“Splitting of a vector into its components with respect to a particular coordinates
system is called resolution of a vector.”

Explanation
Consider a vector 𝐴 making angle θ with x-axis as shown in figure. Draw
perpendicular lines PQ and OP on x-axis and y-axis
respectively from the head of 𝐴. Here,
𝑂𝑄 = Ax = X – Components of 𝐴.
𝑃𝑄 = Ay = Y – Components of 𝐴.
The magnitude of those components can be determined
as follows.

X – Components Y – Components
In ΔOPQ In ΔOPQ
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝
Cosθ = Sinθ =
𝐻𝑦𝑝 𝐻𝑦𝑝

𝑂𝑄 𝑄𝑃
Cosθ = Sinθ =
𝑂𝑃 𝑂𝑃

𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦
Cosθ = Sinθ =
𝐴 𝐴

Or Ax = A Cosθ Or Ay = A Sinθ
Since 𝐴𝑥 and 𝐴𝑦 from two sides of a rectangle for they are called rectangular components.

Composition Of Vector By Rectangular Components

“The pressure by which a vector can be reconstituted from its rectangular
components is known as composition of vector.”

Explanation
Suppose the rectangular components Ax and Ay
are represented by lines 𝑂𝑄 and 𝑂𝑆 as shown. Adding
these two components by head to tail rule it can be seen
that the line 𝑂𝑃 represents the vector A of which Ax
and Ay are the components. To obtain magnitude of A,
consider ΔOPQ.
(Hyp)2 = (Base)2 + (Perp)2
A2 = A2x + A2y
A = 𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦

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The direction of A is determined by the angle θ which the line 𝑂𝑃 makes with x-axis. In
ΔOPQ.
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝
Tanθ =
𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒

𝐴𝑦
Tan θ =
𝐴𝑥

𝐴𝑦
θ = Tan-1
𝐴𝑥

Addition Of Vector By Rectangular Components

The components of a vector provide the most
convenient and accurate way of adding (or subtracting) any
number of vectors.
Consider two vectors 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 making angles θ1 and
θ2 and positive x-axis as shown.
The vector 𝐴1 is added to 𝐴2 by head to tail rule, the resultant
vector 𝐴 = 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 . The process of vector addition by
rectangular components consists of following steps.

Step I:
Resolve each vector into its rectangular components i.e. x-components and y-
components.
A1x = A1 Cos θ1 ; A1y = A1 Sinθ1
A2x = A2 Cos θ1 ; A2x = A2 Cos θ1

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Step II:
Find the x-components of resultants vector 𝐴 by adding all individual x-component.
𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴1𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑥
Its magnitude is given as
Ax = A1x + A2x
OR
Ax = A1 Cosθ1 + A2 Cos θ2

Step III:
Find the y-component of resultant vector 𝐴 by adding all individual y-components.
𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴1𝑦 + 𝐴2𝑦
Its magnitude is given by
AY = A1Y + A2Y
OR
AY = A1 Sinθ1 + A2 Sin θ2

Step IV:
The magnitude of resultant vector is determined by
(Hyp)2 = (Base)2 + (Perp)2
A2 = A2 X + A2Y
Or
A = 𝐴2𝑋 + 𝐴2𝑌

Step V:
The direction of resultant vector is given by the angle θ which its make with positive x-axis.
𝐴
From fig. Tan θ = 𝐴 𝑌
𝑋

𝐴𝑌
θ = Tan-1 𝐴𝑋

Kinds Of Vector
Equal Vector
“Two vectors which are equal both on magnitude and direction are called equal
vectors.”

Null Vector
“A vector of zero magnitude in any direction is called null vector.”
When two vectors of equal magnitude and opposite in direction are added, the result
is a null or zero vector.
Here 𝐴 = −𝐵 𝐴 = 𝐵

Now 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 0

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Unit Vector
“A vector of magnitude equal to unity (1) in a given direction is known as a unit
vector.”

Notation
In handwritten notation unit vectors are represented by small letters with a circumflex
such as 𝑛 . 𝑎 . 𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 .

Formula
A unit vector along 𝐴 can be obtained by dividing the vector 𝐴 with its magnitude i.e.
𝐴 = │𝐴│ 𝑎

𝐴
𝑎 =
│𝐴 │

Properties
1. The magnitude of a unit vector is unity (1).
2. It is a dimensionless vector.
3. It gives only the direction of a vector in space.

Rectangular Unit Vector

In the rectangular coordinate system the special symbols
𝑖 , 𝑗 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 used for unit vectors in the positive x, y and z
directions respectively. These are called rectangular unit vectors.
Now a vector 𝐴 in these dimensions is given as:
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘 and its magnitude as
│𝐴│ = 𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦 + 𝐴2𝑧

𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧
Thus, 𝑎 = 𝑖 + 𝑗 + 𝑘
│𝐴 │ │𝐴│ │𝐴 │
Free Vector
“A vector whose initial point is not fixed (i.e. its tail not at the origin) is called free
vector.”
Properties
1. Free vector can be shifted and drawn parallel to itself.
2. It can be applied at any point.

Example Of Free Vector

1. Force is a vector. Its initial point can be situated any where in
the line of action of the force.
2. Couple is a free vector.

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Position Vector
“The vector which locates a point with respect to the origin of a rectangular
coordinate system i.e. whose initial point (tail) is attached to the origin is called position
vector.”

Properties
1. It is localized vector since its initial point (tail) is specified.
2. It can not be shifted.

Explanation
Position vector is usually represented by 𝑟.
Consider a point „P‟ in three dimensional spaces. Let 𝑟 be
the position vector of this point. The component x, y, z of
position vector 𝑟 are called the coordinates of „P‟ these.
𝑟 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘
And its magnitude is given by
│𝑟│ = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2

Multiplication Of Two Vectors

When two vectors are multiplied, then in some cases, the product is a scalar quantity
and in some cases the product is a vector quantity. Hence multiplication of two vectors is of
two kinds: scalar product and vector product.

Scalar Product OR Dot Product

“Product of two vectors, which results in a scalar quantity, is called scalar product.
A dot (.) is placed the multiplying vectors. Hence it is called dot product.”

Formula
Consider two vectors 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 having angle θ between then as
shown. Their scalar product is defined as “The product of the
magnitude of the vectors and the cosine of the angle between them.”

𝐴. 𝐵 = │𝐴││𝐵│ Cosθ

The scalar product of two vectors is denoted by a dot between the two vectors.
Because of this notation, 𝐴 . 𝐵 is also called the dot product.

Examples
1. Work = (Force) . (displacement)
W = 𝐹 . 𝑑
2. Power = (Force) . (velocity)
P = 𝐹. 𝑣

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3. Electric Flux = (electric field) . (vector area)

Φ = 𝐸. 𝐴

Properties Of Scalar Product

1. Commutative law is obeyed
The dot product unaltered by changing the order of multiplying vectors.
𝐴. 𝐵 = 𝐵. 𝐴

2. Distributive law is obeyed

Scalar product obey distributive law
𝐴. 𝐵+𝐶 = 𝐴. 𝐵 + 𝐴.𝐶

3. Parallel vector
When two vectors 𝐴 & 𝐵 are parallel, the angle between them is 0° [θ = 0].

𝐴.𝐵 = │ 𝐴││𝐵│ Cosθ ∵ Cos0° = 1

𝐴.𝐵 = A B (1)
𝐴.𝐵 = AB

4. Condition of perpendicularity
If two vectors are orthogonal (perpendicular), then their dot product is zero.
𝐴.𝐵 = │ 𝐴││𝐵│ Cosθ
𝐴.𝐵 = │ 𝐴││𝐵│ Cos90° ∵ Cos90° = 0
𝐴.𝐵 = 0

In case of Cartesian unit vector

𝑖.𝑗 = │𝑖││𝑗│Cos 90 = (1) (1) x 0 = 0

𝑖.𝑘 = │𝑖││𝑘│Cos 90 = (1) (1) x 0 = 0

.𝑘 = │𝑗││𝑘│Cos 90 = (1) (1) x 0 = 0

𝑖.𝑗 = 𝑗.𝑘 = 𝑘.𝑖 = 0

5. Equal vectors
The scalar product of a vector with itself is given as the square of its magnitude.
When vector 𝐴 is parallel to 𝐵; the angle between them θ = 0°.
𝐴.𝐵 = │ 𝐴││𝐵│Cosθ

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The magnitude of both vector are equal │𝐴│ = │𝐵│

𝐴.𝐵 = │𝐴││𝐴│ Cos0° θ = 0°

𝐴.𝐵 = A A (1)
𝐴.𝐵 = A2
In case of unit vector of rectangular component.
𝑖.𝑖 = │𝑖││𝑖│Cos0° (1) (1) (1) =1

𝑗.𝑗 = │𝑗││𝑗│Cos0° (1) (1) (1) =1

𝑘 .𝑘 = │𝑘││𝑘│ Cos0° (1) (1) (1) =1

6. The scalar product of two vectors in terms of rectangular components form

For two vectors 𝐴 = Ax 𝑖 + Ay 𝑗 + Az 𝑘 and 𝐵 = Bx 𝑖 + By 𝑗 + Bz 𝑘
The product is given as
𝐴.𝐵 = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz

Prove That 𝐴 . 𝐵 = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz

Consider two vectors A and B in rectangular components from i.e.

𝐴 = Ax 𝑖 + Ay 𝑗 + Az 𝑘
𝐵 = Bx 𝑖 + By 𝑗 + Bz 𝑘

Now take the dot product of these two vectors.

𝐴.𝐵 = (Ax 𝑖 + Ay 𝑗 + Az 𝑘 ) . (Bx 𝑖 + By 𝑗 + Bz 𝑘 )

= AxBx ( 𝑖. 𝑖 ) + AxBy ( 𝑖. 𝑗 ) + AxBz ( 𝑖. 𝑘 )

+ AyBx ( 𝑗.𝑖 ) + AyBy ( 𝑗. 𝑗 ) + AyBz ( 𝑗. 𝑘 )
+ AzBx ( 𝑘.𝑖 ) + AzBy (𝑘.𝑗 ) + AzBz (𝑘. 𝑘)

But 𝑖. 𝑖 = 𝑗. 𝑗 = 𝑘. 𝑘 = 1 & 𝑖 . 𝑗 = 𝑗. 𝑘 = 𝑖 . 𝑘 = 0
Substituting these values in above equation.
𝐴.𝐵 = AxBx (1) + AxBy (0) + AxBz (0)
+ AyBx (0) + AyBy (1) + AyBz (0)
+ AzBx (0) + AzBy (0) + AzBz (1)

Finally we are left with

𝐴.𝐵 = AxBx + AyBy + AzBz

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Projection Of A Vector
“The effective component of a vector in the direction of the other is known as
projection of a vector.”

Mathematically Expression
Consider two vectors 𝐴 & 𝐵 having angles θ with
each other. From figure the projection of B onto A, i.e. B A is
given as
BA = B Cosθ
---------(1)
As we know from the knowledge of scalar product that
A.B = AB Cosθ
Divided both sides by the magnitude of A.
𝐴 .𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
=
𝐴 𝐴

𝐴 .𝐵
= B Cosθ ---------(2)
𝐴

Comparing equations (1) & (2)

𝐴 .𝐵
BA = 𝐴

Similarly the projection of A onto B is determined as,

AB = A Cosθ
𝐴 .𝐵
AB = 𝐵

Commutative Law For Dot Product

“The scalar product of two vectors𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 is independent of the order of vectors to
be multiplied.”
i.e. 𝐴.𝐵 = 𝐵. 𝐴

Proof
The scalar product of two vectors 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 making angle θ with each other is defined
as “The product of magnitude of 𝐴 and the projection of 𝐵 onto 𝐴.”
𝐴.𝐵 = ABA
= A(B Cosθ)
BA = B Cosθ
𝐴.𝐵 = AB Cosθ --------(1)
Similarly we can write 𝐵 . 𝐴 as follows

𝐵 .𝐴 = BAB

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Here AB is the projection of 𝐴 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝐵

𝐵 . 𝐴 = B(A Cosθ) AB = A Cosθ

𝐵 .𝐴 = AB Cosθ --------(2)

Comparing equation (1) and (2), we have

AB Cosθ = BA Cosθ

And ABA = BAB

𝐴. 𝐵 = 𝐵 .𝐴

Distributive Law For Dot Products

For three vectors 𝐴, 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 the dot product of 𝐴 can be distributed over the sum of
𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 .
i.e. 𝐴. 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 𝐴 . 𝐵+ 𝐴. 𝐶

Proof
Consider three vectors 𝐴, 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 as shown in
figure. Using head to tail rule the resultant of 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶
can be determined as,
𝑅 = 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶
Now, BA = projection of 𝐵 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝐴
CA = projection of 𝐶 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝐴
RA = projection of 𝑅 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝐴
The dot product of 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅 can be given as “the product of magnitude of 𝐴 and the
projection of 𝑅 𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝐴.”
∴ 𝐴.𝑅 = ARA
= A(BA + CA) ∵ RA = BA + CA

= ABA + ACA

𝐴.𝑅 = 𝐴 .𝐵 + 𝐴 .𝐶 [ABA = 𝐴 . 𝐵 and ACA = 𝐴. 𝐶 ]

Substituting value of 𝑅
𝐴. 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 𝐴. 𝐵 + 𝐴 . 𝐶

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Vector Product
“Product of two vectors which result in a vector quantity is called vector product.”

Formula
Consider two vectors 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 making angle θ with each
other as shown. The vector product of 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 is written as
𝐶 = 𝐴×𝐵
𝐴×𝐵 = ∣ 𝐴 ∣∣ 𝐵 ∣ sinθ 𝑛
And │𝐴 × 𝐵│ = ∣ 𝐴 ∣∣ 𝐵 ∣ sinθ

The vector product of two vectors is denoted by a cross

between the two vectors. Because of this notation, 𝐴 . 𝐵 is also called the cross product.
1. The vector 𝐶 = 𝐴 × 𝐵 is perpendicular to the plane containing 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵.
2. 𝑛 is a unit vector in the direction of 𝐶 .

Rectangular Component Form

For two vectors 𝐴 = Axi + Ayj + Azk and
𝐵 = Bxi + Byj + Bzk

𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
𝑨×𝑩 = 𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧
𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧

= i[AyBz – AzBy] – j[AxBz – AzBx] + k[AxBy – AyBx]

Examples
1. Torque = 𝜏 = 𝑟x𝐹
2. Velocity = 𝑉 = 𝜔x𝑟 𝜔 is angular velocity
3. Acceleration = 𝑎 = 𝑟x𝑎 𝑎 is angular acceleration

Properties Of Vector Product

Following are some important properties of vector product. Vector product.

1. 𝐴 x 𝐵 = -𝐵x𝐴
2. 𝐴 x (𝐵 + 𝐶 ) = 𝐴x𝐵+ 𝐴x𝐶
3. (𝐴 + 𝐵) x 𝐶 = 𝐴x𝐶+𝐵x𝐶
4. 𝐴 ≠ 0, 𝐵 ≠ 0 and 𝐴 × 𝐵 = 0 then 𝐴 is parallel to 𝐵.
5. 𝑖 x 𝑖 = 𝑗 x 𝑗 = 𝑘 x 𝑘 = 0

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6. 𝑖 x 𝑗 = 𝑘
𝑗x𝑘=𝑖
𝑘x𝑖=𝑗

Prove That: 𝐴 x 𝐵 = - 𝐵 x 𝐴
Consider two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 making angle θ with each other. Their vector product is
given as:
𝐶 = 𝐴x𝐵
𝐴x𝐵 = │𝐴││𝐵│sin θ 𝑛 -------(1)

The direction of 𝑛 is out of the page, the vector 𝐶 is

perpendicular to the plane containing 𝐴 and 𝐵. The direction of 𝐶 is
determined by right hand rule, as follows. Draw the vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵
intersecting at their tails, and imagine an axis through the tails of 𝐴
and 𝐵 perpendicular to the plane of the vectors. Now wrap the fingers of the right hand
around this axis and rotate the vector 𝐴 into the vector 𝐵 through the smaller angle between
them with the fingertips, keeping the thumb extended; the direction of thumb gives the
direction of 𝐴 x 𝐵
Similarly the vector product 𝐵 x 𝐴 is given by:
𝐷 = 𝐵x𝐴 = │𝐵││𝐴│sin θ 𝑛
The direction of 𝑛 is out of the paper
𝐷 = 𝐵x𝐴 = │𝐵││𝐴│sin θ (-𝑛 )

𝐷 = -𝐵 x 𝐴 = │𝐵││𝐴│sin θ 𝑛

-𝐷 = │𝐵││𝐴│sin θ 𝑛

OR -𝐷 = │𝐴││𝐵│sin θ 𝑛 -------(2)
Comparing equations 1 & 2
𝐶 = 𝐷
𝐴x𝐵 = -𝐵 x 𝐴

Physical Interpretion Of Vector Product

“The magnitude of a vector product is numerically equal to the area of the
parallelogram formed with the two component vectors as sides.”

Explanation
Consider vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 making two adjacent sides of a parallelogram as shown:
area of parallelogram = (Base) (Height) = │𝐴│ -------(1)

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Now in ΔOPQ:
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑝
Sin θ = 𝐻𝑦𝑝

𝑃𝑄
Sin θ = 𝑂𝑃

PQ = OP x Sin θ

h = │𝐵│ x Sin θ

Substitute this value in equation (1), we get

The area of parallelogram = │𝐴││𝐵│sin θ
Then │𝐴 x 𝐵│ = │𝐴││𝐵│sin θ
Thus
Area of parallelogram = │𝐴 x 𝐵│

Prepared By Samar Naqvi 0333 -2316051