FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY MINNA

MINNA, NIGER STATE, NIGERIA

COURSE TITLE
GENERAL PHYSICS II
(ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM)

COURSE CODE
PHY 102
 Module 4
Electric Potential
Unit 1: Electric Potential Energy

Unit 2: Electric Potential

Unit 3: Equipotential Surface

 Unit 1
Electric Potential Energy
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Learning Outcomes
3.0 Learning Content
3.1 Electric Potential Energy
3.2 Electric Potential Energy of Two Point Charges
3.3 Electric Potential Energy of Several Point Charges
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
In this course you have learnt about electric charge, electric forces, and electric fields.
This unit will teach you about energy associated with electrical interactions, the energy
that has become an indispensable ingredient of our technological society.
When a charged particle moves in an electric field, the field exerts a force that can do
work on the particle. This work can always be expressed in terms of electric potential
energy. Electric potential energy depends on the position of the charged particle in the
electric field.

2.0 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to;
 Calculate the electric potential energy of a collection of charges.
 Compute the work done in taking a charge q from one point to another in an
electric field.
 Relate the electric potential and electric field, and thereby compute the electric
field at a point knowing the electric potential.

3.0 Learning Content

3.1 Electric Potential Energy
In mechanics you were taught that a body when raised above the earth’s surface is said
to acquire potential energy because it can do work in falling. When this body is free to
move in a gravitational field, it will move to the position where its potential energy is zero.
Similarly, a charged body in an electric field has potential energy, and it will tend to move
to those parts of the field where its potential energy is smaller. Just as the gravitational
potential energy of a body depends on the height of the body above the earth’s surface,
electric potential energy of a charged particle depends on the position of the charged
particle in the electric field.
For a better understanding of electric potential, let us consider a pair of charged parallel
metal plates set up within a uniform, downward electric field with magnitude E as shown
in figure 3.1 below.
 Figure 3.1. A Positive Charge within a Uniform Electric Field

A positive charge, qo, within this field will experience a downward force, F = qoE, due to
the electric field. As the charge moves downward from point a to point b, it covers a
distance d, and at each position it moves to, the force on the charge remains F = qoE.
Thus, the force is constant and independent of its location.
The work done by the electric field is the product of the magnitude of force and the
displacement, d, caused by the force.
𝑊𝑎→𝑏 = 𝐹𝑑 = 𝑞𝑜 𝐸𝑑
The potential energy for gravitational force, F = mg, is U = mgh. Hence the potential
energy for the electric force, F = qoE, is
𝑈 = 𝑞𝑜 𝐸𝑑
Moving downwards from a height ya to height yb, the potential energy is
𝑈 = 𝑞𝑜 𝐸(𝑦𝑎 − 𝑦𝑏 )
The work done on the charge by the field is given by

𝑊𝑎→→𝑏 = −∆𝑈 = −(𝑈𝑏 − 𝑈𝑎 ) = −𝑞𝑜 𝐸(𝑦𝑏 − 𝑦𝑎 ) = 𝑞𝑜 𝐸(𝑦𝑎 − 𝑦𝑏 )

Note:
 The positive charge moves in the direction of the electric field, thus the field does
positive work
 As the positive charge moves away from the positively charged plate, its potential
energy decreases.
The potential energy of the positive charge will be zero when it is completely away from
the influence of the positively charged plate, which is at infinity.
If the positive charge moves upward, in the opposite direction to the electric field,
displacement will be opposite in direction to the force, the field is said to do negative work,
and the potential energy increases.
If the charge is negative, the potential energy of the negative charge increases when it
moves with the field and decreases when it moves against the field.
Thus, we can say that:
- Potential energy of a charged body increases if the charge moves in a direction
opposite to that of the electric force.
- Potential energy of a charged body decreases if the direction of movement of the
charge is same with that of the electric force.

3.1.1 Electric Potential Energy of Two Point Charges

Let us consider a test charge moving in the electric field caused by a single, stationary
point charge. The test charge, qo, will experience a displacement, r, from a point ra to rb,
due to the field of the point charge, q. The force on qo is given by Coulomb’s law as
1 𝑞𝑞𝑜
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 2
The force due to the stationary point charge is not constant during displacement. Thus
the work done in moving the test charge form a point ra to rb is given as
𝑟𝑏 𝑟𝑏
1 𝑞𝑞𝑜 𝑞𝑞𝑜 1 1
𝑊𝑎→𝑏 = ∫ 𝐹𝑑𝑟 = ∫ 2
𝑑𝑟 = ( − )
𝑟𝑎 𝑟𝑎 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝑎 𝑟𝑏

It is important to note that the work done on 𝑞𝑜 by the electric field produced by q depends
only on 𝑟𝑎 and 𝑟𝑏 , and not on the details of the path of displacement.
The potential energy, U, when the test charge 𝑞𝑜 is at any distance r from charge q is
1 𝑞𝑞𝑜
𝑈=
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟

3.1.2 Electric Potential Energy of Several Point Charges

Now suppose the electric field in which charge 𝑞𝑜 moves is caused by several point
charges 𝑞1, 𝑞2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑞3 at distances 𝑟1, 𝑟2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟3 from 𝑞𝑜 as shown in figure 3.2.
 Figure 3.2 Potential Energy due to Several Point Charges

The total electric field at each point is the vector sum of the fields due to the individual
charges, and the total work done on 𝑞𝑜 during any displacement is the sum of the
contributions from the individual charges.
𝑞𝑜 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞3 𝑞𝑜 𝑞𝑖
𝑈= ( + + + ....) = ∑
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3 4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑟𝑖
𝑖

When 𝑞𝑜 is at a different point b, the potential energy is given by the same expression,
but 𝑟1, 𝑟2 . . .. are the distances from 𝑞1, 𝑞2 . .. to point b. The work done on charge 𝑞𝑜
when it moves from a to b along any path is equal to the difference between the potential
energies when 𝑞𝑜 is at a and at b.

Example 1
Three charges are arranged as shown below. What is their electrostatic potential energy?
Assume q = 1.0 x 10-5 C, and d = 0.1m.

Solution
The total potential energy of the system is the algebraic sum of the potential energies of
all pairs of charges.
Thus, Potential Energy, U,
1 (+𝑞)(−4𝑞) (+𝑞)(+2𝑞) (+2𝑞)(−4𝑞)
= ( + + )
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
1 −4𝑞 2 2𝑞 2 −8𝑞 2
= ( + + )
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
1 −10𝑞 2
= ( )
4𝜋𝜀𝑜 𝑑
(8.99 𝑥 109 )(10)(1.0 x 10−5 )2
=
(0.1)
= −90 J
Self-Assessment Exercises
1. How much work is required to be done, in order to bring two charges of
magnitude 3C and 5C from a separation of infinite distance to a separation of
0.5 m?.

2. Two point charges are located on the x-axis, q1 = -e at x = 0 and q2 = +e at x

=a
(a) Find the work that must be done by an external force to bring a third point
charge q3 = +e from infinity to x = 2a
(b) Find the total potential energy of the system of three charges.

4.0 Conclusion
In this unit you learnt that electric potential energy of a charged particle depends on the
position of the charged particle in the electric field. Thus, the work done on the charged
particle by the electric field does not depend on the details of the path of displacement.

5.0 Summary
We have learnt that:
 Electric potential energy of a charged particle depends on the position of the
charged particle in the electric field.
 Potential energy of a charged body increases if the charge moves in a direction
opposite to that of the electric force.
 Potential energy of a charged body decreases if the direction of movement of the
charge is same with that of the electric force.
 The work W done by the electric force on a charged particle moving in an electric
field can be represented by the change in a potential-energy function U.
 The work done on a test charge 𝑞𝑜 by the electric field does not depend on the
details of the path of displacement.
 The work done on charge 𝑞𝑜 when it moves from a to b along any path is equal to
the difference between the potential energies when 𝑞𝑜 is at a and at b

6.0 References/Further Reading

Ebunu F., (2019) Electricity, Magnetism and Modern Physics, National Open University
of Nigeria.

Gaur R. K and Gupta S. L. (2010) Engineering Physics, Dhanpat Rai Publications (P)
LTD.

Vasudeva, A.S, (2010) Modern Engineering Physics for [Link]/[Link]/[Link] students, S.

Chand & Company LTD.

Young, H. D. and Freedman, R. A. (2012) Sear’s and Zemansky’s University Physics with
Modern Physics, 13th Edition, Pearson Addison Wesley.
 Unit 2
Electric Potential
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Learning Outcomes
3.0 Learning Content
3.1 Electric Potential
3.1.1. Calculating Electric Potential
3.2 Electron Volt
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor- Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
This unit will teach you about electric potential, a property of a point in a field and is a
scalar since it deals with a quantity of work done or potential energy per unit charge. The
symbol for potential is V and the unit a joule per coulomb (JC-1) or volts (V).

2.0 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to;
 Explain the meaning and significance of electric potential.
 Compute the electric potential at a point due to a single charge
 Calculate the electric potential that a collection of charges produces at a point in
space.
 Use electric potential to calculate the electric field.
 Relate the electric potential and electric field, and thereby compute the electric
field at a point knowing the electric potential.
 Compute the electric potential at a point due to a dipole and a quadrupole

3.0 Learning Content

3.1 Electric Potential
The electric potential at a point in a field can be defined as the work done per unit charge
moving from infinity to the point. You should note that we are always assuming that the
charge does not affect the field in any way. The choice of the zero of potential is purely
arbitrary and whilst infinity may be a few hundred meters in some cases, in atomic physics
where distances of 10-10m are involved, it need only be a very small distance away from
the charge responsible for the field.
If we take the potential energy associated with a test charge in an electric field to be U,
we can describe this potential energy on a “per unit charge” basis, just as electric field
describes the force per unit charge on a charged particle in the field. This leads us to the
concept of electric potential, often called simply potential. This concept is very useful in
calculations involving energies of charged particles. It also facilitates many electric-field
calculations because electric potential is closely related to the electric field. When we
need to determine an electric field, it is often easier to determine the potential first and
then find the field from it.
Potential is potential energy per unit charge. We define the potential V at any point in an
electric field as the potential energy U per unit charge associated with a test charge Q 0 at
that point:
𝑈
𝑉=𝑄 or 𝑈 = 𝑄0 𝑉 (3.1)
0

Potential energy and charge are both scalars, so potential is a scalar. From Eq. (3.1) its
units are the units of energy divided by those of charge. The SI unit of potential, called
one volt (1 V) in honour of the Italian electrical experimenter Alessandro Volta (1745–
1827), equals 1 joule per coulomb:
1V = 1 volt = 1 J/C = 1 joule/coulomb
Recall that the work done by a conservative force is given as:
Wa b  U a  U b  (U b  U a )  U (3.2)

Eq. (3.2) equates the work done by the electric force during a displacement from a to b
to the quantity on a “work per unit charge” basis. We divide this equation by obtaining

Wa b U U U 
    b  a   (vb  va )  va  vb (3.3)
Q0 Q0  Q0 Q0 

where va = Ua/Q0 is the potential energy per unit charge at point a and similarly for vb. We
call va and vb the potential at point a and potential at point b respectively. Thus the work
done per unit charge by the electric force when a charged body moves from a to b is
equal to the potential at a minus the potential at b.
The difference va – vb is called the potential of a with respect to we sometimes abbreviate
this difference as vab = va - vb (note the order of the subscripts). This is often called the
potential difference between a and b but that’s ambiguous unless we specify which is the
reference point. In electric circuits, which we will analyse in later chapters, the potential
difference between two points is often called voltage. Equation (3.3) then states: vab,
the potential of a with respect to b, equals the work done by the electric force when
a UNIT charge moves from a to b.
Another way to interpret the potential difference in Eq. (3.3) is to use the alternative
viewpoint in which Ua – Ub is the amount of work that must be done by an external force
to move a particle of charge slowly from b to a against the electric force. The work that
must be done per unit charge by the external force is then (Ua - Ub)/Q0 = va - vb = vab. In
other words: vab, the potential of a with respect to b equals the work that must be
done to move a UNIT charge slowly from b to a against the electric force.
3.1.1 Calculating Electric Potential
To find the potential V due to a single point charge Q, we have
U 1 Q
V 
Q0 4 0 r
(Potential due to a point charge) (3.4)
where r is the distance from the point charge Q to the point at which the potential is
evaluated. If q is positive, the potential that it produces is positive at all points; if Q is
negative, it produces a potential that is negative everywhere. In either case, V is equal to
zero at r   , an infinite distance from the point charge. Note that potential, like electric
field, is independent of the test charge that we use to define it.
Similarly, to find the potential due to a collection of point charges, we write:
U 1 Qi
V 
Q0 4 0
r
i i (potential due to a collection of point charge) (3.5)
In this expression, ri is the distance from the ith charge, Qi, to the point at which V is
evaluated. Just as the electric field due to a collection of point charges is the vector sum
of the fields produced by each charge, the electric potential due to a collection of point
charges is the scalar sum of the potentials due to each charge. When we have a
continuous distribution of charge along a line, over a surface, or through a volume, we
divide the charge into elements and the sum in Eq. (3.5) becomes an integral:
1 dQ
V 
4 0  r (potential due to a continuous distribution of charge) (3.6)
where r is the distance from the charge element to the field point where we are finding V.

Finding Electric Potential from Electric Field

When we are given a collection of point charges, Eq. (3.5) is usually the easiest way to
calculate the potential V. But in some problems in which the electric field is known or can
be found easily, it is easier to determine V from E . The force F on a test charge can be

written as
F  Q0 E , so from Eq. (3.2) the work done by the electric force as the test charge
moves from a to b is given by
b b
Wa b   F  dl   Q0 E  dl
a a (3.7)
If we divide this by Q0, we find
b b
va  vb   E  dl   E cos   dl
a a (potential difference as an integral of E ) (3.8)

The value of va – vb is independent of the path taken from a to b just as the value of Wa b
b

 E  dl
is independent of the path. If the line integral a is positive, the electric field does
positive work on a positive test charge as it moves from a to b. In this case the electric
potential energy decreases as the test charge moves, so the potential energy per unit
charge decreases as well; hence vb is less than va and va - vb is positive.
As an illustration, consider a positive point charge. The electric field is directed away from
Q
V
the charge, and 4 0 r is positive at any finite distance from the charge. If you move

away from the charge, in the direction of E , you move toward lower values of if you move
toward the charge, in the direction opposite E , you move toward greater values of V. For
the negative point charge, E is directed toward the charge and is negative at any finite
distance from the charge. In this case, if you move toward the charge, you are moving in
the direction of E and in the direction of decreasing (more negative) V. Moving away from
the charge, in the direction opposite E , moves you toward increasing (less negative)
values of V. The general rule, valid for any electric field, is: Moving with the direction of
E means moving in the direction of decreasing V, and moving against the direction of E
means moving in the direction of increasing V.

(a) (b)
Figure 2: Fields on (a) a positive point charge (b) a negative point charge.
Also, a positive test charge Q0 experiences an electric force in the direction of E toward
lower values of a negative test charge experiences a force opposite E , toward higher
values of V. Thus a positive charge tends to “fall” from a high-potential region to a lower-
potential region.

3.2 Electron Volts

The magnitude e of the electron charge can be used to define a unit of energy that is
useful in many calculations with atomic and nuclear systems. When a particle with charge
Q moves from a point where the potential is vb to a point where it is va, the change in the
potential energy U is
U a  U b  Q(va  vb )  Qvab

If the charge Q equals the magnitude e of the electron charge, 1.602 × 10-19C, and the
potential difference is Vab = 1 V, the change in energy is
U a  U b  (1.602 1019 C)(1V )  1.602 1019 J

This quantity of energy is defined to be 1 electron volt (1 eV)

1eV  1.602 1019 J
The multiples meV, keV, MeV, GeV, and TeV are often used.

Note: Electron volts vs. volts Remember that the electron volt is a unit of energy, not a
unit of potential or potential difference!

When a particle with charge e moves through a potential difference of 1 volt, the change
in potential energy is 1 eV. If the charge is some multiple of e — say Ne — the change in
potential energy in electron volts is N times the potential difference in volts. For example,
when an alpha particle, which has charge 2e, moves between two points with a potential
difference of 1000 V, the change in potential energy is 2(1000eV) = 2000eV. To confirm
this, we write
U a  U b  QVab  (2e)(1000V )  2(1.602  1019 C )(1000V )
 3.204  1016 J  2000eV
Although we have defined the electron volt in terms of potential energy, we can use it for
any form of energy, such as the kinetic energy of a moving particle. When we speak of a
“one-million-electron-volt proton,” we mean a proton with a kinetic energy of one million
19 13
electron volts (1 MeV) equal to (10 )(1.602 10 J )  1.602 10 J . The Large Hadron
6
Collider near Geneva, Switzerland, is designed to accelerate protons to a kinetic energy
of 7 TeV ( 7  10 eV ).
12

Example 1
19
A proton (charge +e - 1.602 10 C ) moves a distance d = 0.5m in a straight line between
points a and b in a linear accelerator. The electric field is uniform along this line, with
magnitude E = 1.5 × 107 V/m = 1.5 × 107 N/C in the direction from a to b. Determine
(a) the force on the proton;
(b) the work done on it by the field;
(c) the potential difference Va - Vb.

Solution
We are given the electric field, so it is straightforward to find the electric force on
the proton. Calculating the work is also straightforward because is uniform, so the
force on the proton is constant. Once the work is known, we find V a - Vb
(a) The force on the proton is in the same direction as the electric field, and its
magnitude is
F  QE  (1.602 1019 C )(1.5 107 N / C )  2.4 1012 N

(b) The force is constant and in the same direction as the displacement, so the
work done on the proton is

Wa b  Fd  (2.4 1012 N )(0.5m)  1.2 10 12 J

1eV
 (1.2 1012 J )  7.5 106 eV  7.5MeV
1.602 1019 J
(c) Potential difference is the work per unit charge, which is
Wa b 1.2 1012 J
Va  Vb   19
 7.5 106 J / C  7.5 106V  7.5MV
Q 1.602 10 C

Example 2
An electric dipole consists of point charges q 1 = +12nC and q2 = -12nC placed 10.0 cm
apart. Compute the electric potentials at points a, b and c.
Solution
We have r1 = 0.060m and r2 = 0.040m
1 qi 1 q1 1 q2
Va 
4 0
r
i
 
4 0 r1 4 0 r2
i

1.2 109 C ( 1.2 10 9 C )

 (9.0 109 N .m 2 / C 2 )  (9.0 109 N .m 2 / C 2 )
0.060m 0.040m
 1800 N .m / C  (2700 N .m / C )  1800V  ( 2700V )  900V

In a similar way, you can show that the potential a point b (r 1 = 0.040m and r2 =
0.140m) is Vb = 1930V and that the potential at c (r1 = r2 = 0.130m) is Vc = 0.

Example 3
Compute the potential energy associated with a +4.0-nC point charge if it is placed at
points a, b and c in figure in example 2.

Solution
The potential energy U associated with a point charge q at a location where the
electric potential is V is U = qV.
At the three points we find
 U a  qVa  (4.0 109 C )(900 J / C )  3.6 106 J
U b  qVb  (4.0 109 C )(1930 J / C )  7.7 106 J
U c  qVc  0

All of these values correspond to U and V being zero at infinity.

Note that zero net work is done on the 4.0-nC charge if it moves from point to infinity
by any path. In particular, let the path be along the perpendicular bisector of the line
joining the other two charges q1 and q2. Hence the force on the 4.0-nC charge is
perpendicular to the path, and no work is done in any displacement along it

4.0 Conclusion
 In this unit you learnt how to compute the electric potential at a point due to a
single charge and also when due to a collection of charges.

5.0 Summary
We have learnt that:
 The electric potential at a point in a field can be defined as the work done per unit
charge moving from infinity to the point.
 The potential difference between two points equals the amount of work that would
be required to move a unit positive test charge between those points.
 The potential V due to a quantity of charge can be calculated by summing (if the
charge is a collection of point charges) or by integrating (if the charge is a
distribution).
 The potential difference between two points a and b, also called the potential of
a with respect to b, is given by the line integral of E .

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA)

1. Let us say we have two charges of magnitude 1C and 2C placed at a distance 2 m
from each other. Calculate the electric potential between these two charges.

2. Electric charge Q is distributed uniformly around a thin ring of radius shown in the
figure below. Find the potential at a point on the ring axis at a distance from the
centre of the ring.
3. Positive electric charge is distributed uniformly along a line of length lying along the
y-axis between y = -a and y = +a. Find the electric potential at a point on the x-axis
at a distance from the origin.

7.0 References/Further Reading

Ebunu F., (2019) Electricity, Magnetism and Modern Physics, National Open University
of Nigeria.

Gaur R. K and Gupta S. L. (2010) Engineering Physics, Dhanpat Rai Publications (P)
LTD.

Vasudeva, A.S, (2010) Modern Engineering Physics for [Link]/[Link]/[Link] students, S.

Chand & Company LTD.

Young, H. D. and Freedman, R. A. (2012) Sear’s and Zemansky’s University Physics with
Modern Physics, 13th Edition, Pearson Addison Wesley.
 Unit 3
Equipotential Surface
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Learning Outcomes
3.0 Learning Content
3.1 Equipotential Surface and Field Lines
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 References/Further Reading
1.0 Introduction
Field lines help us visualize electric fields. In a similar way, the potential at various points
in an electric field can be represented graphically by equipotential surfaces. These use
the same fundamental idea as topographic maps like those used by hikers and mountain
climbers. On a topographic map, contour lines are drawn through points that are all at the
same elevation. Any number of these could be drawn, but typically only a few contour
lines are shown at equal spacings of elevation. If a mass m is moved over the terrain
along such a contour line, the gravitational potential energy mgy does not change
because the elevation y is constant. Thus contour lines on a topographic map are really
curves of constant gravitational potential energy. Contour lines are close together where
the terrain is steep and there are large changes in elevation over a small horizontal
distance; the contour lines are farther apart where the terrain is gently sloping. A ball
allowed to roll downhill will experience the greatest downhill gravitational force where
contour lines are closest together.
By analogy to contour lines on a topographic map, an equipotential surface is a three-
dimensional surface on which the electric potential V is the same at every point. If a test
charge is moved from point to point on such a surface, the electric potential energy
remains constant. In a region where an electric field is present, we can construct an
equipotential surface through any point. In diagrams we usually show only a few
representative equipotentials, often with equal potential differences between adjacent
surfaces. No point can be at two different potentials, so equipotential surfaces for different
potentials can never touch or intersect.

2.0 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 Use equipotential surfaces to visualize how the electric potential varies in space.

3.0 Learning Content

3.1 Equipotential Surface and Field Lines
Electric field can do no work on a charge because potential energy does not change as
a test charge moves over an equipotential surface. It follows that must be perpendicular
to the surface at every point so that the electric force is always perpendicular to the
displacement of a charge moving on the surface.
Figure 3.1: Cross sections of equipotential surfaces (blue lines) and electric field lines
(red lines) for assemblies of point charges. There are equal potential differences between
adjacent surfaces.

Note:
E need not be constant over an equipotential surface.
On a given equipotential surface, the potential V has the same value at every point. In
general, however, the electric field magnitude E is not the same at all points on an
equipotential surface.

3.2 Equipotential and Conductors

Here is an important statement about equipotential surfaces: When all charges are at
rest, the surface of a conductor is always an equipotential surface.

Figure 3.2: When charges are at rest, a conducting surface is always an equipotential
surface. Field lines are perpendicular to a conducting surface.
Since the electric field E is always perpendicular to an equipotential surface, we can
prove this statement by proving that when all charges are at rest, the electric field just
outside a conductor must be perpendicular to the surface at every point (Fig. 3.2).
We know that E  0 everywhere inside the conductor; otherwise, charges would move. In
particular, at any point just inside the surface the component of E tangent to the surface
is zero. It follows that the tangential component of E is also zero just outside the surface.
If it were not, a charge could move around a rectangular path partly inside and partly
outside and return to its starting point with a net amount of work having been done on it.
This would violate the conservative nature of electrostatic fields, so the tangential
component of E just outside the surface must be zero at every point on the surface. Thus
E is perpendicular to the surface at each point, proving our statement.

4.0 Conclusion
In this unit you learnt that the potential at various points in an electric field can be
represented graphically by equipotential surfaces.

5.0 Summary
We have learnt that:
 An equipotential surface is a surface on which the potential has the same value
at every point.
 At a point where a field line crosses an equipotential surface, the two are
perpendicular.
 When all charges are at rest, the surface of a conductor is always an equipotential
surface and all points in the interior of a conductor are at the same potential.
 When a cavity within a conductor contains no charge, the entire cavity is an
equipotential region and there is no surface charge anywhere on the surface of
the cavity

6.0 References/Further Reading

Ebunu F., (2019) Electricity, Magnetism and Modern Physics, National Open University
of Nigeria.

Gaur R. K and Gupta S. L. (2010) Engineering Physics, Dhanpat Rai Publications (P)
LTD.

Vasudeva, A.S, (2010) Modern Engineering Physics for [Link]/[Link]/[Link] students, S.

Chand & Company LTD.

Young, H. D. and Freedman, R. A. (2012) Sear’s and Zemansky’s University Physics with
Modern Physics, 13th Edition, Pearson Addison Wesley.